UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Arthur  1-T.    Johnson 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


HARSHBERGER 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


A  TEXT-BOOK 


OF 


Mycology  and  Plant  Pathology 

271  Illustrations 
i2mo.  xiii  +  779  Pages  Cloth,  $4.00 


P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  CO. 
PHILADELPHIA 


TEXT-BOOK  OF 

PASTORAL  AND 
AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE 
INJURIOUS  AND  USEFUL  PLANTS 
OF  COUNTRY  AND  FARM 


BY 

JOHN  W.  HARSHBERGER,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR  OK  BOTANY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA;  FORMER  LECTURER  FARMERS'   INSTITUTES 

NEW  YORK;    PRESIDENT  OF  THE  PHILADELPHIA  NATURAL 
HISTORY  SOCIETY,  PHILADELPHIA,  I92O. 


WITH  121  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PHILADELPHIA 

P.   BLAKISTON'S   SON   &   CO. 

1012   WALNUT   STREET 


COPYRIGHT,  1920,  BY  P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  Co. 


THE. MAPLE- PRESS. YORK-PA 


PREFACE 

o 

During  and  since  the  great  world  war  there  has  been  a  growing  demand 
for  information  on  the  injurious  and  useful  plants  of  America.     The  in- 
jurious plants  are  represented  by  those  belonging  to  the  lower  phyla,  the 
thallophytes,  which  include  the  fungi,  destructive  to  farm  crops,  and  the 
higher  flowering  plants,   which   are  some  of  them  also  injurious.     In 
the  following  pages,  particular  attention  will  be  given  to  the  flowering 
£  plants  with  casual  mention  of  the  flowerless  forms,  which  come  within  the 
i    purview  of  this  book.     The  contents  of  the  pages,  which  follow,  epitomize 
^  the  laboratory  and  research  work  of  the  writer  connected  with  a  course  in 
J    botany  given  to  the  veterinary  students  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
\  vania  for  the  past  twenty-five  years.     The  course  has  been  given  during 
the  college  year  for  two  hours  per  week,  one  lecture  and  one  laboratory 
hour.     The  first  term  (October  to  February)  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  the 
general  morphology  and  physiology  of  plants,  and  the  second  term  (Febru- 
ary to  June)  to  the  consideration  of  the  plants  (injurious  and  useful)  of 
economic  importance.     The  laboratory  exercises  supplement  the  lectures. 
The  injurious  plants  are  considered  first,  because  they  lend  themselves 
culiarly  to  indoor  laboratory  work  of  a  technical  kind,  which  can  be 
M   pursued  in  the  northern  states,  while  wintry  conditions  prevail  out  of  doors. 
S  Then  too,  professional  students  are  anxious  after  the  preliminary  work 
•  has  been  given,  such  as  the  morphology  and  physiology  of  plants,  to  start 
^  at  once  upon  the  part  of  botany  which  applies  directly  to  the  scientific 
V\  preparation  for  their  life's  work.     The  study  of  the  stock-killing  and 
^•poisonous  plants  with  the  medical  applications  does  this  in  a  peculiar  way. 
v\\  These  two  reasons  are  the  ones  which  determined  the  placing  of  the  tech- 
^Vsnical  laboratory  methods  first  in  the  arrangement  of  the  subject  matter 
^  of  this  text-book.     The  study  of  the  forage  plants  (grasses  and  legumes), 
of  the  weeds  and  of  seed  testing,  which  are  presented  in  the  final  chapters  of 
the  book,  is  pursued  naturally  most  satisfactorily,  when  the  weather 
conditions  permit  the  gathering  of  fresh  material  for  lecture  and  labora- 
tory'purposes,  and  when  to  some  extent  outdoor  work  is  made  possible 
and  pleasant.     The  teacher  in  the  southern  states,  or  on  the  Pacific  slope, 

442913 


viil  PREFACE 

or  elsewhere,  where  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  winter  months  permit, 
can  reverse  the  treatment  of  the  subject  by  beginning  the  course  with  the 
contents  of  Chapter  10  and  end  the  course  with  the  perhaps  less  familiar 
and  technical  chapters  (Chapters  1-9  inclusive).  In  fact  this  arrange- 
ment was  suggested  by  a  prominent  teacher  of  agricultural  botany,  as 
the  logical  treatment  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  text-book. 

Where  a  text-book  is  considered  advisable  by  the  teacher  for  the  work 
of  the  first  term,  the  following  books  may  be  recommended  for  study  in 
connection  with  the  lectures  and  the  laboratory  work  in  general  botany: 
Allen,  Charles  E.  and  Gilbert,  Edward  M.,  Text-book  of  Botany.  Boston, 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.;  Gager,  C.  Stuart:  Fundamentals  of  Botany.  Phila- 
delphia, P.  Blakis ton's  Son  &  Co.;  Ganong,  William  F.:  A  Text-book  of 
Botany.  New  York,  The  MacMillan  Company,  1918;  Martin,  John  N.: 
Botany  for  Agricultural  Students.  New  York,  John  Wiley  and  Sons, 
1919;  Transeau,  Edgar  Nelson:  Science  of  Plant  Life.  Yonkers-on-the- 
Hudson,  New  York,  1919.  For  the  laboratory  course  the  writer  uses 
Harshberger,  John  W.:  Students'  Herbarium  for  Descriptive  and  Geo- 
graphic Purposes.  Philadelphia,  Christopher  Sower  &  Co. 

The  chapters  end  with  laboratory  exercises  and  the  methods  of  utilizing 
the  illustrative  material,  which  should  accompany  the  detailed  treatment 
of  the  subject.  In  order  to  appeal  to  a  large  number  of  teachers  of  agri- 
cultural botany,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  the  plants  suggested 
for  the  laboratory  exercises  are  selected  from  the  common  plants  of  the 
different  countries  and  regions  concerned.  The  good  teacher,  however, 
will  be  able  to  adapt  the  means  to  the  end  without  slavishly  depending 
upon  the  laboratory  exercises,  which  with  him  will  serve  as  suggestions 
of  the  line  of  work  which  he  can  undertake  successfully  in  the  allotted 
time.  It  is  hoped,  that  the  bibliographies  at  the  ends  of  the  chapters  will 
prove  helpful.  The  book,  bulletins  and  papers  mentioned  in  these  bibli- 
ographies indicate  the  sources  of  the  information  in  the  text  and  in  order 
to  simplify  printing  such  references  are  omitted  as  foot  notes  from  the 
pages  of  the  book.  What  material  of  the  text,  which  is  not  mentioned 
specifically  as  derived  from  the  author's  own  research  and  study,  has  been 
gleaned  from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  such  as  personal  interviews  with 
farmers,  agricultural  professors  and  stockmen,  or  from  books,  bulletins 
and  magazine  articles,  which  have  been  read  and  the  information  contained 
therein  has  been  absorped  and  has  become  part  of  the  mental  equipment 
of  the  writer.  Where  the  subject  matter  of  the  text  has  been  taken  from 


PREFACE  IX 

printed  books  and  bulletins,  it  has  been  rewritten  and  recombined,  so  as 
to  become  a  part  of  the  warp  and  woof  of  the  finished  literary  fabric 
herewith  presented. 

It  is  hoped,  that  this  handbook  will  appeal  to  the  student  of  plant 
life,  particularly  to  the  people,  who,  as  agriculturalists,  stock  raisers  and 
veterinarians,  want  to  know  something  concerning  the  botany  of  the 
economic  plants  of  interest  to  them  in  their  agricultural,  pastoral,  or 
professional  work.  The  plants  chosen  for  treatment  in  the  descriptive 
text,  as  the  injurious,  or  useful,  are  those  which  have  proven  to  be  so. 
Plants  of  doubtful  position  in  these  respects  have  been  omitted.  The 
writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  help  of  Dr.  John  A.  Kolmer  of  the 
Medical  School,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  who  has  read  the  pages 
on  the  phytotoxins  and  Ehrlich's  theory  of  immunity;  of  Dr.  C.  Dwight 
Marsh,  Expert,  Poisonous  Plant  Investigations,  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  cooperation  in  securing  the  use 
of  published  departmental  photographs  and  to  Mr.  C.  V.  Brownlow  of 
the  firm  of  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.  for  the  encouragement,  which  he 
has  given  during  the  publication  of  the  book. 

JOHN  W.  HARSHBERGER. 
Philadelphia,  July  31,  1920. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  i 

PAGE 

STOCK-KILLING  PLANTS i 

Aspergillus  fumigatus;  Grasses  which  are  mechanically  injurious;  ^gagropilae 
and  Phytobezoars;  Clover -hair  balls;  Cactus  spine  balls;  Leaf  hairs  of  plane 
trees;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  2 

POISONING  BY  PLANTS.     GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 9 

Blyth's  classification  of  poisons;  Robert's  classification  of  poisons;  Bernhard  H. 
Smith's  classification  of  poisons;  Conditions  influencing  the  formation  of  plant 
poisons;  Chemical  nature  of  poisoning;  Ptomaines;  Phytotoxins;  Ehrlich's 
theories;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work;  Experimental  pharmacology. 

CHAPTER  3 

POISONOUS  FUNGI  AND  OTHER  SPORE-BEARING  PLANTS 28 

Poisonous  Fungi;  Golden-rod  rust;  Amanita  muscaria;  Amanita  phalloides 
General  Considerations;  Groups  of  poisonous  Fungi;  Bibliography;  Laboratory 
work. 

CHAPTER  4 

GYMNOSPERMOUS  POISONOUS  PLANTS 42 

Yew;  Common  juniper;  Red  cedar;  Bibliography. 

CHAPTER  5 

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS   POISONOUS   PLANTS        45 

Fodder  or  silage  poisoning;  Pellagra;  Darnel;  Death  camas;  Stagger-grass; 
White  hellebore;  Lily  of  the  valley;  Meadow  saffron;  Red  root;  Lady  slipper 
orchid;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  6 

DICOTYLEDONS  AS  POISONOUS  PLANTS 55 

Poke;  Corn  cockle;  Aconite;  Buttercup;  Larkspurs;  Marsh  marigold;  May- 
apple^  Celandine;  Poppies;  Wild  black  cherry;  Bibliography;  Laboratory 
work. 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  7 

PAC;E 

Loco  WEEDS  AND  OTHER  POISONOUS  PLANTS 70 

Black  locust;  Broom;  Burma  bean;  Lupines;  Stemless  loco  weed;  Wooly  loco 
weed;  Rattleweed;  Loco  weeds  in  general;  Rattlebox;  Box;  Spurges;  Castor  oil 
plant;  Poison  ivy;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  8 

MISCELLANEOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS 86 

St.  John's  wort;  English  ivy;  Water  hemlock;  Poison  hemlock;  Death  of  So-' 
crates;  Lambkill;  Calico-bush,'  Stagger-bush;  Great  laurel;  Chinese  primrose; 
Privet ;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  9 

PRINCIPALLY  SOLANACEOUS  AND  COMPOSITOUS  PLANTS 98 

Oleander;  Whorled  milkweed;  Thorn  apple;  Bittersweet;  Garden  nightshade; 
Potato;  Sneeze-weed;  White  snakeroot;  Ragwort;  Hay-fever  plants;  Biblio- 
graphy; Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  10 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING ....117 

Chemical  constituents;  Nature  of  feeds;  Digestion;  Rations;  Digestibility  of 
animal  foods;  Nutritive  ratios;  Energy  of  food;  Bibliography. 

CHAPTER  ii 

THE  STRUCTURE  AND  GENERAL  ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  GRASSES 122 

Structure;  Economic  uses  of  grasses;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  12 

DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS 133 

Timothy;  Kentucky  blue  grass;  Red  top;  Orchard  grass;  Meadow  foxtail; 
Smooth  brome  grass;  Blue-joint  grass;  Fescue  grasses;  Sweet  vernal  grass; 
Perennial  rye  grass;  Marram  grass;  Seaside  oats;  Bermuda  grass;  Johnson 
grass;  Guinea  grass;  Grama  grass;  Buffalo  grass;  Short  grass  vegetation; 
Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  13 

THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  AMERICAN  CEREALS 155 

Maize;  Oats;  Wheat;  Barley;  Rye;  Rice;  Buckwheat;  Bibliography;  Labora- 
tory work. 

CHAPTER  14 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  LEGUMINOS.E 181 

Structure;  Economic  plants;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 


CONTENTS  Xlli 

CHAPTER  15 

PAGE 

THE  FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS.E 187 

Alfalfa;  Red  clover;  Alsike  clover;  Crimson  clover;  White  clover;  Sweet 
clover;  Field  pea;  Cowpea;  Soy;  Peanut;  Miscellaneous  leguminous  forage 
plants;  Miscellaneous  forage  plants;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  1 6 

LEGUMINOUS  ROOT  TUBERCLES  AND  THE  ACCUMULATION  OF  NITROGEN;  NITROGEN- 
CONSUMING  PLANTS     .    .    . 218 

Loss  of  soil  nitrogen;  Nitrification;  Nitrogen-storing  plants;  Types  of  legu- 
minous nodules;  Leaf  nodules  of  Rubiaceae;  Use  of  green  manures;  Encourage- 
ment of  leguminous  crops;  Microbe-seeding;  Nitrogen-consuming  plants  (Root 
crops,  bulb  crops,  stem  crops,  leaf  crops,  flower  crops,  fruit  crops,  cereal  crops, 
seed  crops);  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  17 

WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL 241 

Definitions;  Injurious  nature  of  weeds;  Introduction  and  distribution;  Means 
of  distribution;  Lines  of  travel;  Special  weed  examples;  Classification  of  weeds; 
Destruction;  Weed  legislation;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

CHAPTER  1 8 

AGRICULTURAL  SEEDS,  SEED  SELECTION  AND  TESTING 259 

General  Considerations;  History;  Apparatus  for  seed  testing;  Purity  tests; 
Germination  tests;  Practical  seed  testing;  Means  of  detecting  source  of  seeds; 
Number  of  seeds;  Bibliography;  Laboratory  work. 

GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX \   -    -   273 


CHAPTER  i 
STOCK-KILLING  PLANTS 

The  injurious  plants  of  country  and  farm  may  be  divided  for  conven- 
ience of  treatment  into  those  which  cause  physical  injuries  to  animals 
and  to  man  in  a  mechanical  way  and  into  those  which  cause  in  jury,  disease, 
or  death  by  some  deleterious,  or  poisonous  substance  possessed  by  the 
plant.  The  former  have  been  termed  stock-killing  plants  and  the  latter 
poisonous  plants.  There  is  no  sharp  demarcation  between  the  two  kinds 
of  plants,  but  the  distinction  has  proved  to  be  a  useful  one. 

The  first  group  includes  those  plants  which  are  mainly  harmful  to 
cattle,  causing  serious  troubles,  which  may  result  eventually  in  the  death 
of  the  animal.  This  group  includes  a  considerable  number  of  species 
none  of  very  close  taxonomic  relationship.  The  anatomical  and  mor- 
phological peculiarities  upon  which  the  injury  depends  are  very  diverse 
and  consequently  they  become  active  in  a  great  variety  of  ways. 

Aspergillus  fumigatus. — This  grayish-green  mould  fungus  was  first 
discovered  by  Fresenius  in  the  bronchial  tubes  and  air  cavities  of  the 
bustard.  The  fungal  herbage  on  culture  media  is  greenish  turning  to  gray 
and  even  to  dirty  brown.  It  is  readily  identified  by  the  short  conidio- 
phores  (0.1-0.3  mm-  l°ng)  with  club-shaped  extremity  and  simple  upright 
sterigmata  forming  long  chains  of  very  small  (2-3  /*),  globular  conidio- 
spores.  True  perithecia  are  known  with  thin-skinned  asci  and  light-red, 
lenticular,  tough-skinned  spores  (4-4.5  M)  surrounded  by  a  pale,  radially 
striped,  equatorial  band.  The  fungus  grows  at  a  high  optimum  tempera- 
ture (about  4O°C.)  and  hence  is  well  adapted  to  thrive  in  living  animals  at 
blood  temperature. 

Pathogenicity. — It  causes  pathogenic  conditions  in  animals  and  man  by 
growth  in  the  lung  tissue  and  in  the  air  passages,  where  its  presence  causes 
difficulty  of  breathing  and  develops  a  toxin  comparable  to  the  toxins  of  the 
bacteria.  Death  may  be  caused  by  the  filling  of  the  air  cavities  which 
leads  to  the  final  asphyxiation  of  the  host,  as  well,  as  to  a  generalized 
affection  similar  to  hemorrhagic  septicemia.  It  occurs  in  the  human  ear 
producing  otomycosis,  and  in  the  bronchi  (bronchomycosis),  and  in  the 


2  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

lungs  of  birds,  calves  and  man  causing  pneumomycosis.  Pigeon-fatteners 
in  Paris  are  men  who  feed  thousands  of  young  pigeons  daily  by  filling  their 
mouths  with  a  mixture  of  grain  and  water,  which  they  force  into  the 
mouths  of  the  pigeons,  much  as  the  parent  pigeons  feed  their  young. 
These  men  suffer  from  aspergillosis,  which  is  a  pulmonary  disorder  re- 
sembling tuberculosis  and  occasionally  fatal. 

Cases. — The  most  remarkable  case  was  the  presence  of  the  fungus  in 
the  lungs  of  a  calf,  which  had  died  of  a  form  of  pneumonia.  An  autopsy 
by  Dr.  M.  P.  Ravenel  in  which  the  writer  participated  revealed  the  pres- 
ence of  lumps  on  the  external  surface  of  the  calf's  lungs.  Celloidin 
sections  of  these  pseudo-tubercular  lesions  mounted  as  double-stained 
microscopic  preparations  revealed  the  ramifications  of  the  mycelium 
through  the  lung  tissues  and  the  emergence  of  the  conidiophore  with  its 
mass  of  radiating  spores  extending  into  the  cavities  of  the  lungs  from  which 
by  being  coughed  up  in  the  sputum  the  conidiospores  have  been  distrib- 
uted. Some  few  lung  spaces  had  three  large  fruit-bodies  of  the  fungus 
present,  almost  completely  filling  the  cavity. 

Bromus  tectorum. — The  awned  brome  grass  is  a  slender,  erect  annual 
with  narrow  pubescent  leaves  and  nodding  panicles  of  spikelets.  The 
lemmas  of  each  floret  are  rough  and  hairy  terminating  in  awns  at  least 
13-20  mm.  long  (%-%  inch).  The  flowers  appear  from  June  to  August 
and  in  Utah  and  Colorado  during  this  period  it  has  become  a  serious  pest. 
Its  injurious  effects  are  due  to  the  mechanical  presence  under  the  teeth  of 
the  awned  glumes  where  they  cause  inflammation  and  suppuration, 
the  animals  which  have  eaten  the  grass  frequently  losing  their  teeth  as  a 
consequence. 

Cenchrus  tribuloides. — The  sand  bur  is  a  grass  common  in  sandy  places 
and  along  railroads  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  in  Texas,  the  Dakotas  and 
California.  The  spikelets  of  this  annual  grass  are  surrounded  by  a  spiny 
involucre  which  forms  a  hard,  rigid  bur  with  strong,  barbed  spines.  The 
bur  is  readily  detached  from  the  plant  and  its  spines  enter  the  skin  and 
flesh  of  animals,  especially  the  lower  part  of  the  extremities,  causing 
serious  inflammation  in  man  and  the  lower  animals.  * 

Heteropogon  contortus. — A  grass  native  of  New  Caledonia  is  one 
which  bores  into  the  skin  and  intestines  of  the  lower  animals  causing  fatal 
inflammation  and  peritonitis. 


STOCK-KILLING    PLANTS  3 

Hordeum  jubatum. — The  squirrel-tail  grass,  or  wild  barley,  is  found 
widely  distributed  in  North  America  being  an  annual,  or  a  winter  annual. 
The  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  dense  spike,  each  consisting  of  a  number  of  i- 
flowered  spikelets,  three  occurring  at  each  joint.  The  central  spikelet  has 
the  perfect  flower  and  produces  one  seed,  while  the  lateral  spikelets  are 
reduced  to  awns  and  together  with  the  subulate,  rigid  glumes  and  the  awned 
lemma  of  the  fertile  flower  simulate  a  bristly  involucre  at  each  joint  of 
the  rhachis.  At  maturity,  the  joints  fall  with  the  spikelets  attached. 

It  has  been  recognized  for  some  time  that  the  barbed  spikelets  of  this 
species  of  Hordeum,  along  with  perhaps  two  other  species,  act  injuriously 
in  a  mechanical  way,  causing  deep  ulcerations,  or  sores,  of  the  tongue  and 
lips  of  cattle  and  horses  with  the  awns  buried  deeply  in  the  tissues. 
They  are  frequently  found  between  the  teeth,  where  they  cause  suppura- 
tion of  the  gums  and  ulceration  of  the  bones  of  the  jaw. 

Stipa  capillata,  S.  comata,  S.  setigera,  S.  spartea. — The  first  species 
is  indigenous  to  Russia;  the  second,  known  as  needle  grass,  is  distributed 
in  western  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Utah,  Oregon, California  and  Arizona.  The 
third  species,  known  as  porcupine  grass,  is  widely  distributed  in  western 
North  America,  while  S.  setigera  is  found  in  Uruguay  and  other  South 
American  countries.  The  species  of  Stipa  are  perennial  grasses  with  i- 
flowered'  spikelets  with  bristle- tipped  glumes.  The  lemmas  are  hard, 
terminating  in  a  twisted  awn,  and  these  lemmas  tightly  inclose  the  seed 
at  maturity.  This  twisted  awn  is  very  hygroscopic,  twisting  up  in  dry 
weather,  and  untwisting,  when  the  air  is  moist.  When  such  an  awn  with 
its  pointed,  hard,  sharp  point  below  becomes  entangled  in  the  wool  of  sheep 
the  pointed  fruit  by  the  gimlet-like  motion  of  its  spirally  twisted,  some- 
times feathery  awn  bores  into  the  skin  and  the  flesh  of  the  animal  by  the 
hygroscopic  movements  of  the  awn.  The  entrance  of  a  large  number  of 
these  barbs  into  the  skin  and  underlying  tissues  produce  an  inflammation 
that  is  sometimes  followed  by  the  death  of  the  animal.  The  Uruguayan 
species  (S.  setigera)  injures  the  eyes  of  sheep,  producing  intense  keratitis 
often  followed  by  inflammation  of  the  cornea  and  ultimate  blindness,  so 
that  the  sheep,  thus  injured,  are  unable  to  find  their  food  and  die  of  starva- 
tion and  thirst. 

Aegagropilae  and  Phytobezoars. — These  two  words  connote  the  same 
idea  as  that  of  hair  balls.  An  aegagropila  is  a  hair  ball  found  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines  of  some  ruminants,  as  the  goat  aljaypos,  the  wild 
goat  +  pila,  a  ball),  formed  by  the  goat,  or  other  animal  licking  the  hair 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


off  from  the  breast  and  forelimbs  and  swallowing  it,  so  that  in  the  stomach 
and  intestines  it  is  rolled  into  a  large  ball  the  size  of  the  fist.  These  balls 
may  cause  the  death  of  the  animal  in  which  they  form  by  a  stoppage  of 
the  bowels.  The  same  word  has  been  applied  by  extension  of  the  idea 
to  the  balls  of  seaweed  found  on  the  Mediterranean  Coasts.  The  Ligu- 
rian  grass-wrack,  Posidonia  oceanica,  is  found  in  the  bay  between  the  old 

town  of  Antibes  and  the  projecting 
Cap  in  such  great  quantities  that  the 
shore  is  heaped  high  with  its  torn  off 
leaves.  To  the  west  of  the  Cap,  on 
the  sands  of  the  Golfe  Jouan,  round 
balls  of  a  light  brown  color  and  fibrous 
structure  are  often  found.  These  used 
to  be  seen  in  chemists'  shops  under  the 
name  of  "pilae  marinae. "  They  are 
loose  pieces  of  the  rootstock  of  Posi- 
donia covered  with  the  frayed  remains 
of  leaves.  These  are  tossed  about  on 
the  beach  by  the  waves  until  they  are 
formed  into  balls  (aegagropilae,  phyto- 
bezoars),  a  decimetre  in  circumference. 
A  bezoar  (or  where  caused  by  plant 
materials,  a  phytobezoar)  is  a  concre- 
tion found  in  the  digestive  tract  of 
ruminants  and  formerly  supposed  to 
be  efficacious  in  preventing  the  fatal 
PIG.  i. — DetaUs  of  the  flower  of  the  effects  of  poisons  and  still  held  in  re- 
5&^<2£'tS£rSS2;  Pute  in  eastern  countries,  hence  the 
B,  calyx  opened  out;  c,  one  of  the  derivation  of  the  word  from  the  Persian 

*•*•*•    (P^,     expelling    +    zahr, 
poison)  becoming  in  Arabic  badizahr, 
bazahr  and  in  new  Latin  bezoar. 

Clover  Hair  Balls. — Since  1895,  when  Dr.  F.  V.  Coville  described  the 
result  of  cattle  eating  the  crimson  clover,  Trifolium  incarnatum,  when  in 
the  flowering  condition,  a  large  number  of  cases  of  the  death  of  animals 
by  the  formation  of  crimson  clover  phytobezoars  have  been  reported. 
The  earlier  evidence  recorded  by  Coville  in  his  bulletin  is  given  herewith. 
Mr.  William  P.  Corsa  forwarded  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  a  ball 


STOCK-KILLING   PLANTS 


5 


of  peculiar  appearance,  stating  that  it  had  been  taken  from  the  stomach  of 
the  horse  belonging  to  Joseph  W.  Messick  of  Milford,  Del.,  which  had 
been  eating  crimson  clover,  and  the  death  of  which  was  ascribed  to  the 
ball  formed  from  the  branched  hairs  and  fibers  of  the  calyces  of  the  crim- 
son clover  flowers  (Fig.  i).  Another  man,  Mr.  Alexander  Ryan,  a  few 
days  before  the  above  report  had  been  filed,  had  lost  a  horse  from  which 
two  similar  balls  had  been  taken.  Later  another  letter  from  an  entirely 


FIG.  2. — Crimson-clover  hair  balls  taken  from  horses  which  had  died  from  the 
presence  of  these  masses  in  the  alimentary  tracts.  The  larger  one  is  the  largest  of  six 
taken  from  a  horse  which  had  been  fed  on  crimson-clover  hay  for  12  years  before  his 
death.  Horses  have  died  within  a  few  months  after  commencing  to  eat  crimson  clover. 
The  smaller  hair  ball  is  as  large  as  a  regulation  baseball.  (After  Westgate,  J.  M.:  Crim- 
son clover:  Utilization.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  579,  1914,  p.  6.) 

different  locality,  Kellar,  Va.,  was  received  by  the  Department  written  by 
B.  W.  Mears  &  Son  accompanied  by  a  ball  taken  from  the  horse  imme- 
diately after  death.  The  statement  was  made  that  the  horse  had  worked 
as  usual  without  any  signs  of  disease  up  to  the  time  of  its  fatal  illness  which 
lasted  five  hours  with  sharp  pain  before  death.  Another  ball,  similar  to 
that  taken  from  the  stomach,  was  found  in  the  large  intestine.  Several 
other  horses  in  the  vicinity  had  died  the  preceding  week,  all  apparently 


6  PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

from  the  same  cause,  and  the  farmers  had  ascribed  it  to  the  feeding  of 
crimson  clover.  Another  case  was  reported  in  the  summer  of  1895  by 
Dr.  Charles  F.  Dawson  of  Washington,  who  received  from  a  veterinary 
surgeon  of  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  three  balls  which  he  had  removed  from  the 
intestine  of  a  horse  after  death.  The  personal  acquaintance  of  the  writer 
with  crimson  clover  phytobezoars  happened  some  years  later  when  his 
attention  was  called  to  the  death  of  six  horses  near  Westville,  N.  J.  with 
the  receipt  of  two  large  balls  sent  as  museum  specimens  by  a  former  stud- 
ent, a  practicing  veterinarian.  A  bah1  in  the  possession  of  the  writer 
taken  from  a  horse  at  Oxford,  Penna,  is  about  the  size  of  a  fist.  Coville 
states  that  they  are  nearly  spheric  and  measure  from  three  to  four  and  one- 
half  inches  in  diameter.  The  stiff,  bristly  calyx  hairs  are  matted  together 
and  are  cemented  to  some  extent  by  the  mucus  derived  from  the  digestive 
tract  of  the  animal  in  which  they  form  (Fig.  2). 

Cactus  Spine  Balls. — Prof.  William  Trelease  reported  in  1897  a  still 
more  interesting  phytobezoar.  "In  January,  1897,  Dr.  Francis  Eschan- 
zier  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  sent  to  me  two  specimens,  one  a  ball  of 
surprising  accuracy  of  surface,  measuring  a  little  over  three  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter,  and  weighing  seven  and  one-half  ounces,  and  the  other, 
one-half  of  a  similar  ball,  about  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  weighing 
about  four  ounces,  stating  that  sixteen  such  balls  had  been  taken  from 
the  stomach  of  a  bull  at  the  Hacienda  de  Cruzes,  and  adding  that  he 
believed  them  to  be  composed  entirely  of  an  agglomeration  of  the  fibres 
of  some  cacti,  an  undigested  portion  of  which  formed  the  nucleus." 
Inspection  of  the  balls  by  Prof.  Trelease  proved  this  supposition  to  have 
been  the  correct  one.  The  specimens  were  of  a  brown  color,  and  consist- 
ed of  the  barbed  hairs  with  which  the  mamillae  of  the  Plato puntias  are 
armed.  In  the  West  and  Southwest,  where  one  of  the  opuntias  with  long 
spines  is  fed  to  cattle  (Opuntia  Engelmanni),  it  is  customary  to  remove 
the  long  spines  by  the  use  of  fire,  but  this  does  not  entirely  remove  the 
danger  of  their  use.  The  late  Dr.  Vasey  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  gives  a  number  of  instances  in  which  cattle  have  died  from 
an  accumulation  of  spines  in  the  mouth  and  stomach. 

Leaf  Hairs  of  Plane  Trees. — Dioscorides  and  Galen,  two  early  Greek 
physicians,  called  attention  to  the  injurious  effects  of  the  hairs  found  on 
newly  expanded  leaves  of  plane  trees  (Platanus)  and  on  the  surface  of 
the  ball-like  clusters  of  pistillate  flowers.  These  hairs,  which  fall  off  in 
great  numbers,  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  if  inhaled,  produce  inflamma- 


STOCK-KILLING   PLANTS  7 

tion  of  the  nose  and  throat.  Severe  coughs  are  the  result  of  the  inhalation 
and  accumulation  of  the  star-like  hairs  in  the  respiratory  passages.  See 
Gardeners'  Chronicle  3d.  Ser.  Ill,  370,  March  24,  1888. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

BRITTON,  N.  L.  and  BROWN,  ADDISON:  An  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern  United 
States,  Canada  and  the  British  Possessions,  second  edition,  volumes  I  and  II. 
Genera  Bromus,  Cenchrus,  Hordeum,  Stipa,  Trifolium. 

COVILLE,  F.  V.:  Crimson  Clover  Hair-balls,  Circular  No.  8,  Div.  of  Botany,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  June  15,  1895. 

HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W. :  A  Review  of  Our  Knowledge  of  Phy  tobezoars.  The  Journal 
of  Comparative  Medicine  and  Veterinary  Archives,  xix,  143,  March,  1898. 

KERNER  VON  MARILATJN,  ANTON  and  OLIVER,  F.  W. :  The  Natural  History  of  Plants. 
Half  Volume  II,  616-620. 

PAMMEL,  L.  H. :  A  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.     Part  II,  1911,  pages  262-266;  336-369. 

PEARSON,  LEONARD  and  RAVENEL,  M.  P.:  A  Case  of  Pneumonomycosis  Due  to  Asper- 
gillus  Fumigatus.  University  Medical  Magazine,  August,  1900. 

ROBINSON,  B.  L.  and  FERNALD,  M.  L.:  A  Handbook  of  the  Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns 
of  the  Central  and  Northeastern  United  States  and  Adjacent  Canada.  (Gray's 
New  Manual  of  Botany,  7th  edit.,  1908.)  Same  genera  as  in  Britton  and 
Brown. 

STRASBURGER,  EDWARD:  Rambles  on  the  Riviera.  English  translation  by  O.  and  B.  C. 
Casey,  1906,  411-412. 

TRELEASE,  WILLIAM:  Cactus  Hair  Balls.  Transactions  of  the  Academy  of  Science  of 
St.  Louis,  vii,  493,  Nov.  30,  1897. 


LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — Cultures  of  Aspergillus  fumigatus  should  be  kept  on 
nutrient  agars  in  test  tubes  as  stock  material.  Fresh  transfers  of  this  fungus  should 
be  made  at  least  once  every  two  months  throughout  the  year.  Such  stock  material, 
allowing  sufficient  time  for  new  growth  to  take  place  after  inoculation  of  fresh  agar, 
can  be  kept  conveniently  in  the  ice  box,  or  refrigerating  plant,  of  the  laboratory.  When 
the  culture  is  used  for  laboratory  study  by  the  class,  transfers  should  be  made  to  slices 
of  wet  bread  fitted  into  Petri  dishes  and  sterilized  in  the  autoclave  before  use.  Asper- 
gillus fumigatus  makes  a  rapid  growth  on  the  surface  of  the  bread  and  is  removed 
easily  for  examination  by  the  members  of  the  botanical  class. 

Dried  specimens  of  the  injurious  higher  plants  should  be  kept  between  folded  news- 
papers, having  been  collected  for  the  purpose  during  the  growing  and  flowering  season. 
Some  of  the  material  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher  can  be  preserved  in  alcohol,  or 
formalin.  A  number  of  hair  balls  should  be  kept  on  hand  for  the  lecture  table  and  for 
detailed  study  by  the  class. 


8  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Remove  some  of  the  mycelium  with  the  conidiophores  of  Aspergillus  fumigatus 
from  the  surface  of  the  bread  in  the  Petri  dishes  with  a  pair  of  smooth  forceps.     Place 
on  a  slide  in  50  per  cent,  alcohol,  so  as  to  wet  the  hyphae.     Drain  off  the  alcohol  and 
mount  in  acetic  acid  (2  per  cent.),  applying  a  ring  of  asphaltum.     Study  and  draw. 

2.  Study  and  draw  the  awned  brome  grass,  Bromus  tectorum,  and  dissect  out  the 
parts  which  collectively  become  injurious  to  animals. 

3.  Do  the  same  for  the  sand  bur^  Cenchrus  tribuloides,  and  the  squirrel  grass, 
Hordeum  jubatum. 

4.  Compare  the  three,  or  four,  species  of  feather  grass,  Stipa  capillata,  S.  comata, 
S.  sparlea  and  make  detailed  drawings  of  the  spikelets  with  attached  spirally  twisted 
awns. 

5.  Macerate  portions  of  the  crimson  clover  hair  balls  in  potassium  hydroxide  dis- 
solved in  water  in  a  porcelain  evaporating  dish  over  the  Bunsen  burner  flame.     Com- 
pare the  parts  thus  released  with  the  hairs  on  the  calyces  of  crimson  clover  flowers 
preserved  in  alcohol.     Draw  the  material  from  the  two  sources  for  comparison. 

6.  Remove  the  hairs  from  the  leaves  of  plane  trees  and  study  under  the  microscope. 
A  supply  of  the  leaves  for  this  purpose  should  be  gathered  in  the  spring.     Young  leaves 
of  plane  trees  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol  for  later  class  study. 


CHAPTER  2 
POISONING  BY  PLANTS.     GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

Poisonous  plants  are  those  which  contain  some  deleterious  or  toxic 
substance,  which  injures  health,  causes  intoxication,1  lowers  the  physical 
and  mental  tone,  produces  at  times  convulsions  and  in  many  cases  results 
in  the  death  of  the  victim. 

The  classification  of  poisons  has  been  attempted  by  a  number  of  toxi- 
cologists.  While  their  classifications  are  a  scientific  attempt  at  arranging 
the  facts  known  about  poisonous  substances,  they  are  only  approximations. 
Much  remains  to  be  done  along  the  lines  opened  up  by  modern  "chemistry, 
physiology  and  toxicology.  Blyth  gave  one  of  the  earlier  and  simpler  of 
the  classifications  proposed  for  poisons. 

Blyth's  Classification  of  Poisons. 

A.  Poisons  causing  death  immediately,   or  in  a  few  minutes. 

Prussic  acid,  strychnin. 

B.  Irritant  Poisons.     Symptoms  mainly  pain,  vomiting  and  purging. 

Savin,  ergot,  digitalis,  colchicum,  yew,  laburnum. 

C.  Narcotic  and  Irritant  Poisons.     Symptoms  of  an  irritant  nature, 
with  more  or  less  cerebral  indications. 

Oxalic  acid,  or  oxalates. 

D.  Poison  more  especially  affecting  the  nervous  system. 

1.  Narcotics.     Chief  Symptoms:  insensibility  which  may  be  preceded 

by  more  or  less  cerebral  excitement.     Opium. 

2.  Deliriants.     With    delirium    as    a   prominent    symptom:  Bella- 

donna, hyoscyamus,  stramonium  and  other  Solanaceae,  poison- 
ous fungi,  Indian  hemp,  darnel,  etc. 

3.  Convulsives.     Alkaloids  of  the  strychnin  class. 

4.  Nervous  phenomena  of  complex  character.     Aconite,   digitalis, 

poison  hemlock,  curare. 

Kobert's  Classification  of  Poisons. — The  writer  has  used  this  classi- 
fication of  Kobert  for  a  number  of  years  in  his  exposition  of  the  subject 
of  poisonous  plants  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  It  is  a  useful  one 
in  emphasizing  the  organs  of  the  animal  affected  by  poisons. 

1  Not  used  in  sense  of  drunkenness,  as  after  an  alcoholic  debauch. 


10  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

I.  Poisons  which  Cause  Gross  Anatomic  Changes  of  the  Organs. 

A.  Those  which  act  as  irritants. 

i.  Acids;  (2)  Caustic  alkalis;  (3)  Caustic  salts;  (4)  Locally  irritating 
substances  such  as  cotton  oil  and  savin;  (5)  Gases  and  vapors 
which  cause  local  irritation  when  breathed,  as  chlorine. 

B.  Those  with  little  local  effect,  but  alter  other  parts  of  the  anatomic 

structure,  as  lead  and  phosphorus. 

II.  Blood  Poisons. 

1.  Those  which  interefere  in  physical  manner  with  the  circulation, 

as:  ricin,  abrin. 

2.  Poisons  which  have  the  property  of  dissolving  the  red  corpus- 

cles, as  saponin. 

3.  Poisons  which  with  or  without  solution  of  the  red  corpuscles 

produce  methaemoglobin,  as  picric  acid. 

4.  Poisons  which  have  a  peculiar  action  on  the  coloring  matter  of 

the  blood,  or  on  its  products  of  decomposition,  such  as  carbon 
monoxide. 

III.  Poisons  which  Kill  without  Anatomic  Change. 

i.  Cerebro-spinal    poisons,   as   cocaine,   atropin,   morphin,   nicotin, 

coniin,  aconitin,  strychnin,  etc. 
•         2.  Heart  poisons,  as  digitalis,  helleborin,  muscarin. 

IV.  Poisonous  Product  of  Tissue  Change. 

1.  Poisonous  albumin. 

2.  Poisons  formed  in  foods. 

3.  Auto-poisoning,  as  uraemia. 

4.  Products  of  tissue  change,  as  ptomaines,  etc. 

Bernhard  H.  Smith's  Ckssification  of  Poisons. — This  is  one  of  the 
most  complete  classifications  proposed,  and  is  adopted  by  L.  H.  Pammel 
in  his  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants  (1910). 

The  main  facts  of  this  classification  without  going  into  a  consideration 
of  the  treatment  which  Pammel  gives  in  his  outline  are  as  follows: 

POISONS  ACTING  ON  THE  BRAIN 

I.  Narcotics. 

Symptoms. — Giddiness;  dimness  of  sight;  contracted  pupils;  head- 
ache; noises  in  the  ears;  confusion  of  ideas,  and  drowsiness,  passing  into 
insensibility. 

Example. — Poppy  (Papa-ver  somniferum). 


POISONING  BY   PLANTS.      GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  II 

II.  Deliriants. 

Symptoms. — Special  illusions;  delirium;  diluted  pupils;  thirst  and 
dryness  of  the  mouth;  occasionally,  though  rarely,  paralysis  and  tetanoid 
spasms. 

Examples. — Thorn  Apple  (Datura  Stramonium).  Black  Nightshade 
(Solanum  nigrum),  Hemp  (Cannabis  saliva},  Darnel  (Lolium  temulentum) 
and  Fly  Agaria  (Amanita  muscaria). 

III.  Inebriants. 

Symptoms. — Excitement  of  cerebral  functions,  and  of  the  circulation; 
loss  of  power  of  co-ordination,  and  of  muscular  movements,  with  double 
vision;  leading  to  profound  sleep,  and  deep  coma. 

Examples. — Wormwood  (Artemisia  Absinthium},  Jamaica  Dogwood 
(Piscidia  Erythrlna). 

POISONS  ACTING  ON  THE  SPINAL  CORD 
Convulsives. 

Symptoms. — Clonic  (intermittent)  spasms,  extending  from  above 
downwards.  Opisthonas  very  violent;  but  trismus  (lock-jaw)  rare. 
Swallowing  spasmodic.  Death,  usually,  in  less  than  three  hours,  or 
rapid  recovery. 

Examples. — Nux  vomica  (Stryc-hnos  Nux-vomica],  St.  Ignatius's  Bean 
(Strychnos  Ignatii}. 

POISONS  ACTING  ON  THE  HEART 

I.  Depressants. 

Symptoms. — Vertigo;  vomiting;  abdominal  pain;  confused  vision; 
convulsions;  occasional  delirium;  paralysis;  syncope;  sometimes  asphyxia. 

Examples. — Tobacco  (Nicotiana  Tabacum),  Hemlock  (Conium  ma- 
culatum),  Indian  Tobacco  (Lobelia  inflata}. 

II.  Asthenics. 

Symptoms.— Numbness,  and  tingling  in  the  mouth;  abdominal  pain; 
vertigo;  vomiting;  purging;  tremor;  occasional  delirium;  paralysis; 
dyspnoea,  ending  in  syncope. 

Examples. — Aconite  (Aconitum  Napellus),  Cohosh  (Cimicifuga  race- 
mosa),  Oleander  (Nerium  oleander),  Foxglove  (Digitalis  pur  pur  ea], 
White  Hellebore  (Veratrum  album),  Green  Hellebore  (Veratrum  mride}. 


12  PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

VEGETABLE  IRRITANTS 

I.  Purgatives. 

Symptoms. — Abdominal  pain;  vomiting,  and  purging,  cramps  stran- 
gury and  tenesmus,  followed  by  collapse,  and  sometimes  accompanied 
by  drowsiness,  and  slight  nervous  symptoms. 

Examples. — Castor  Bean  (Ricinus  communis),  Green  Hellebore 
(Helleborus  viridis),  May  Apple  (Podophyllum  peltatum),  Marsh  Marigold 
(Caltha  palustris). 

II.  Abortives. 

Symptoms. — Nausea;  vomiting;  stupor;  sometimes  tenesmus;  abortion 
may  or  may  not  occur;  coma. 

Example. — Ergot  (Claviceps  purpurea). 

III.  Irritants  with  Nervous  Symptoms. 

Symptoms. — Abdominal  pain;  vomiting  and  purging;  dilated  pupils; 
headache;  tetanic  spasms;  occasional  covulsions;  sometimes  rapid  coma. 

Examples. — Indian  Pink  (Spigelia  marilandica)  Fool's  Parsley  (Aeth- 
usa  Cynapium). 

IV.  Simple  Irritants. 

Symptoms. — Burning  pain  in  the  throat  and  stomach;  thirst;  nausea; 
vomiting;  tenesmus;  purging;  dysuria;  dyspnoea  and  cough  occasionally, 
death  through  shock;  convulsions;  exhaustion;  or  starvation  due  to 
throat  or  stomach. 

Examples. — Bouncing  Bet  (Saponaria  qfficinalis},  Poison  Ivy  (Rhus 
Toxicodendron) ,  Kinnikinnik  (Arctostophylos  Uva-ursi). 

V.  Simple    Irritants    when    Taken    in    Large    Quantities. 
Symptoms. — Burning  pain  in  throat  and  stomach.     Vomiting;  purg- 
ing; difficulty  in  swallowing.     Recovery  usual. 

Examples. — White  Mustard  (Brassica  alba),  Black  Mustard  (B. 
nigra),  Black  Pepper  (Piper  nigrum),  Common  Ginger  (Zingiber  offici- 
nalis}. 

Conditions  Influencing  the  Formation  of  Plant  Poisons. — The  com- 
mercial study  of  drug  plants  in  which  the  substances  used  as  drugs  are 
poisonous  to  animals  in  uncontrolled  doses  has  shown  that  the  amount  of 
poison  found  in  the  plant  and  its  activity  varies  considerably.  It  has 
been  found  by  a  comparative  study  of  the  drug  content  of  such  plants  and 
also  by  experimental  investigation,  that  there  are  various  conditions  which 


POISONING   BY    PLANTS.       GENERAL    PRINCIPLES  13 

influence  this  variation.  The  following  are  some  of  the  reasons  for  this 
difference  in  the  amount  and  activity  of  the  poison  derived  from  the  same 
species  of  plant. 

1.  Glucoside  Transformation. — It  has  been  found  that  in  some  plants 
the  poisonous  substance  does  not  exist  in  the  plants  themselves,  but 
appears,  only  when  one  substance  in  the  plant  comes  in  contact  with  and 
is  acted  upon  by  another  substance  which  may  be  called  the  activator. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  leaves  of  the  wild  black  cherry,  Prunus  serotina, 
which  do  not  contain  any  active  poison  until  they  become  dried,  when  its 
glucoside  substance,  probably  amygdalin,  is   acted   upon   by  emulsin, 
an  enzyme,  and  converted  into  the  poisonous  hydrocyanic,  or  prussic  acid. 

2.  Influence  of  Age  of  Plant. — The  age  of  the  plant  materially  influ- 
ences the  virulence  and  the  amount  of  poison  present  in  the  plant.     Some- 
times a  young  plant  is  more  actively  poisonous  than  an  old  plant  and  vice 
versa.     The  death  camas,  Zygadenus  venenosus,  native  of  Montana  and 
other  western  states  is  more  poisonous  before  it  comes  into  bloom.     On 
the  other  hand,  the  seeds  of  the  lupines  (Lupinus)  are  the  only  parts  of  the 
plants  positively  known  to  be  poisonous. 

3.  Character  of  Organ. — Different  organs  of  the  same  plant  vary  as  to 
their  content  of  poison.     Some  parts  are  inert,  others  are  deleterious. 
The  green  leaves  and  stems  of  the  common  potato,  Solatium  tuberosum, 
are  poisonous,  especially  when  wilted,  while  the  tubers  form  an  everyday 
article    of    diet.     The    fruits  of  spotted  cowbane,   Conium  maculatum 
and  the  seeds  of  Datura  Stramonium,  the  thorn  apple,  are  more  poisonous 
than  the  foliage. 

4.  Seasonal  Variation  Poisons. — There  is  a  considerable  variation  in 
the  amount  of  poisonous  material  produced  in  plants  from  season  to  season. 
Thus  the  mature  bulbs  of  Colchicum  contain  a  much  larger  amount  of 
toxic  substance  than  the  growing  bulbs.     Miss  Alice  Henkel  in  a  paper 
on   "American   Root   Drugs"   notes   that   the  roots  of   the  American 
hellebore,  Veratrum  viride,  should  be  collected  in  the  autumn  after  the 
leaves  are  dead. 

5.  Influence  of  Climate. — Climate  has  a  marked  influence  on  the 
development  of  poisonous  substances  in  plants.     Dunstan  has  shown 
(Bui.  Imp.  Inst.  1905)  that  Hyoscyamus  muticus  grown  in  India  yielded 
0.3  to  0.4  per  cent,  of  hyoscyamin,but  that  the  same  species  grown  in  Egypt 
produced  0.6  to  1.2  per  cent.     Esser  states  that  no  coniin  is  found  in  the 
spotted  cowbane,  Conium  maculatum,  in  the  far  north. 


14  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

6.  Influence  of  Soil. — The  soil  has  considerable  influence  on  the 
amount    of    poisonous    substance    developed    in    plants.     The    trailing, 
yellowish-green  form  of  poison  ivy,  Rhus  radicans,  found  on  the  coastal 
sand  dunes  is  less  virulent  than  the  climbing  form  found  inland.     This 
difference  in  the  poisonous  properties  is  to  be  attributed  to  growth  on  the 
barren  sand  of  the  sea  coast. 

7.  Influence  of  Cultivation. — Cultivation  has   a  marked  influence. 
In  general,  wild  poisonous  plants  have  larger  amounts  of  alkaloids  and 
glucosides  than  the  same  species  when  cultivated,  although  this  does  not 
always  hold  true.     The  wild  forms  of  the  Lima  bean,  Phaseolus  lunatus, 
contains  much  more  HCN  than  the  cultivated  forms. 

8.  Variation  in  Amount  of  Poison. — The  amount  of  poison  contained 
in  plants  of  the  same  species  depend  upon,  the  race  or  variety  of  that 
particular  species  utilized  for  the  extraction  of  the  drug,  or  poison.     Blyth 
records  the  following  percentages  of  nicotin  in  various  tobaccos  as  given  by 
Cox  (Pharm.  Journ.,  Jan.  20,  1894).     Syrian  leaves  (a)  .612  per  cent.; 
Syrian  leaves  (b)  1.093  Per  cent.;  Gold  Flake  (Virginia)  2.501  per  cent.; 
Navy  Cut  (light  colored)  3.640  per  cent.;  Best  Shag  (b)  5.000  per  cent.: 
Algerian  tobacco  (a)  8.813  Per  cent. 

9.  Weather  and  Poisoning. — The  state  of  the  weather  has  consider- 
able effect  on  the  number  of  cases  of  poisoning  among  cattle  on  the  free 
range.     The  death  camas,  Zygadenus  venenosus,  found  in  California,  is 
a  case  in  point.     The  bulbs  of  this  plant  are  dangerous  only  after  rains, 
since  at  other  times,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  sheep  to  pull  them  out 
of  the  ground.     Many  serious  cases  of  stock  poisoning  have  occurred  after 
late  spring  and  early  autumn  snow  storms,  because  the  grasses  and  other 
low  plants  are  covered  with  snow  and  only  the  taller  plants  remained 
visible  and  then  were  poisonous. 

10.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Cases  of  Poisoning. — There  are  more 
cases  of  poisoning  of  stock  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  than  others. 
Laurel,  Kalmia  latifolia,  is  more  likely  to  be  browsed  in  winter  and 
early, spring,  because  of  its  attractive,  bright  green  color,  when  other 
plants   are   dormant.     Cattle  are  more  subject  to  loco  disease  in  the 
spring,  because  the  loco  weeds  become  green  early  in  the  spring  and  are 
browsed  upon  by  animals  while  the  other  green  herbage  is  scarce  at  this 
time  of  the  year. 

1 1.  Specific  Differences  of  Animal  Susceptibility . — The  different  kinds 
of  live  stock  are  affected  quite  differently  by  poisonous  plants.  Human 


POISONING  BY   PLANTS.      GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  15 

beings  are  most  susceptible  to  the  deadly  night  shade,  Atropa  Belladonna. 
The  cat  and  dog  are  less  susceptible.  The  horse  is  much  less  so,  and  the 
pig,  goat,  sheep  and  rabbit  are  little  susceptible  to  poisoning,  even  on 
eating  the  root,  the  most  poisonous  part. 

12.  Individual  Susceptibility.- — There  is  a  difference  in  the  individual 
susceptibility  to  poisons.     The  best  illustration  of  this  is  the  case  of 
poison  ivy  producing  the  characteristic  inflammation  on  fair  persons  with 
blue  eyes  (blondes),  and  the  immunity  of  persons  with  dark,   swarthy 
complexions  (brunettes) .     This  individual  difference  varies  with  the  health 
of  the  animal,  or  man.     The  healthy  individual  having  greater  immunity 
than  the  one  in  a  depleted  condition.     Animals  familiar  with  certain 
ranges  escape  poisoning,  while  those  not  so  familiar  may  be  poisoned. 

13.  Physical  State  of  Animal. — The  physical  state  of  the  animal, 
whether ,hungry,  or  well-fed,  whether  kept  in  confinement,  or  allowed  the 
freedom  of  the  open  fields  influences  the  number  of  cases  of  poisoning. 
When  animals  are  hungry;  or  are  turned  out  into  the  open  fields  after  con- 
finement, they  are  more  likely  to  eat  of  poisonous  plants  than  otherwise. 
This  has  been  shown  recently  in  the  case  of  laurel  poisoning  of  heifers  at 
Narberth,   Pennsylvania. 

14.  Animals  with  Depraved  Appetite. — The  animal  may  acquire  a 
depraved  appetite  where  it  leaves  off  feeding  on  the  nutritious  pasture 
plants  and  takes  to  eating  the  deleterious  ones.     This  happens  with  the 
loco  weeds;  when  the  depraved  appetite  of  the  animals  leads  them  to  eat 
only  the  plants  which  have  induced  the  loco  disease. 

15.  Unpalatable  Poisonous  Plants.— Poisonous  plants  are  frequently 
unpalatable  and  so  are  not  usually  eaten,  but  in  dry  spells,  when  other 
forage  is  scarce,  they  may  be  eaten  with  poisonous  results. 

16.  Secondary  Fermentations  in  Fodders. — Perfectly  wholesome  fod- 
ders may  become  poisonous  owing  to  secondary  fermentations  within  them, 
as  occurs  sometimes  in  maize  silage. 

17.  Poisonous  Plants  as  Impurities. — A  perfectly  harmless  feed  may 
become  poisonous  owing  to  the  admixture  of  a  poisonous  plant,  or  plant 
part  with  it,  as  oats  with  corn  cockle  and  barley  with  darnel.     In  Europe 
dry  meadow-saffron  may  be  included  in  hay. 

1 8.  Removal  of  Animals  to  New  Locality. — Farm  stock  reared  in  a 
locality  where  certain  poisonous  plants  abound  are  much  less  likely  to  be 
poisoned  by  these  plants  than  animals  brought  from  a  region  where  they 
do  not  occur. 


1 6  PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

CHEMICAL  NATURE  OF  POISONING 

The  modern  chemical  investigation  of  poisonous  plants  has  resulted 
in  the  isolation  of  the  active  principles  of  many  plants  which  have  been 
determined  to  be  nitrogenous  substances  of  basic  character,  and  to  this 
class  of  substance  the  name  of  alkaloid  has  been  given.  It  has  been  found 
also  that  all  poisonous  plants  do  not  contain  alkaloids,  but  in  addition 
there  are  non-alkaloidal  active  principles,  which  include  a  large  number 
of  different  types  of  chemical  compounds,  including  the  substances  known 
as  glucosides,  which  are  readily  hydrolyzed  by  dilute  acids,  or  by  ferments 
into  a  sugar  and  another  constituent,  which  is  generally  physiologically 
active.  The  isolation  of  the  active  compounds  has  been  of  importance  in 
determining  the  strength  of  the  dosage  of  the  drug,  which  could  be  safely 
administered  to  animals.  The  study  of  these  actively  poisonous  substances 
led  to  various  attempts  at  their  production  synthetically.  Chemists 
owing  to  the  backward  condition  of  their  science  were  unable  to  produce 
the  complex  active  substances,  but  their  study  has  led  to  the  discovery 
of  the  portion  of  the  molecule  which  produces  the  physiological  effect 
and  this  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  simpler  analogous  compounds  possessing 
the  action  of  the  drug,  or  poison. 

The  discovery  was  made  that  the  physiological  action  of  the  drug,  or 
poison,  was  dependent  in  general  on  its  chemical  nature,  although  modified 
naturally  by  differences  in  physical  properties  such  as  solubility,  volatility 
and  the  like.  Thus,  a  very  small  change  in  the  chemical  constitution  of  a 
poison,  is  often  accompanied  by  a  complete  change  in  its  physiological 
action.  There  is  often  a  great  difference  in  the  activity  of  stereo-isom- 
erides.  In  the  case  of  optically  active  stereo-isomerides,  we  find  marked 
differences  in  their  physiological  action.  For  example,  atropin  (racemic 
hyoscyamin)  differs  in  some  respects  from  /<CT0-hyoscyamin,  and  l&vo- 
nicotin  is  twice  as  actively  poisonous  as  the  dextro-v&nety.  Adrenalin 
is  a  striking  example,  the  natural  Icevo  form  being  about  eleven,  or  twelve 
times  as  active  as  the  dextro.  J9e#/r0-asparagin  is  sweet.  Z«t>0-aspara- 
gin  is  tasteless.  Unsaturated  compounds  are  usually  far  more  toxic 
than  the  corresponding  saturated  ones.  Propyl  alcohol,  CH2  — CH2  — 
CH2  — OH,  is  a  narcotic,  causing  intoxication,  although  not  really  poison- 
ous, whereas  allyl  alcohol,  CH2  =  CH— CH2  — OH,  is  a  strong  poison, 
although  not  having  narcotic  action.  The  influence  of  increasing  un- 
saturation  is  displayed  in  the  graphic  formulae  below:  from  May's 
"The  Chemistry  of  Synthetic  Drugs,"  page  32. 


POISONING   BY   PLANTS.  GENERAL   PRINCIPLES                      17 

CH3      CH2— CH2— OH  CH3       CH— CH2 

CH3— N  CH3— N 

CH3       OH  CH3       OH 

Cholin  (slightly  tosic)  Neurin  (very  toxic) 

CH3       C=CH  OH 

CH3— N  (CH3)3=N 


CH3       OH  CH2—  CH=CH2 

Far  more  toxic  than  neurin  A  homologue  of  neurin  only  slightly  poisonous 

The  study  of  the  physiologic  action  of  ortho,  meta,  and  para  compounds 
has  shown  differences,  such  as  that  the  para  compounds  are  more  poison- 
ous than  the  ortho,  although  occasionally  the  reverse  is  ths  case.  An 
example  of  these  differences  may  be  cited.  Saccharin,  an  orthocompound, 

/\/co\ 

NH  is  five  hundred  times  sweeter  than  sugar,,  while   the 
\/\S02/ 
corresponding  para  compound  is  without  taste. 

THE    ORGANISM   AND   THE    POISONOUS    SUBSTANCE 

Hydrolytic  cleavages  in  the  alimentary  canal,  more  profound  oxidation 
changes  and  sometimes  reduction  in  the  blood  or  tissues  are  chemical 
processes  taking  place  in  the  organism.  The  saliva  acts  on  few  drugs, 
but  in  the  stomach  many  drugs  can  be  absorbed  and  where  unpleasant  by- 
effects  are  often  manifested.  This  has  led  to  the  synthesis  of  new  drugs 
which  are  not  absorbed  in  the  stomach.  When  the  substances  enter  the 
intestine,  they  enter  an  alkaline  medium  and  are  acted  upon  by  the 
pancreatic  enzyme,  trypsin,  which  hydrolyzes  esters,  anilides  and  similar 
bodies.  The  drugs  are  able  to  exert  their  specific  action  after  saponifica- 
tion  in  the  intestine  and  the  pharmacologist  recognizing  this  fact  prepares 
derivatives  the  components  of  which  would  cause  unpleasant  effects  on 
the  stomach,  but  for  the  fact,  that  they  are  not  decomposed  in  that  organ, 
but  are  hydrolyzed  in  the  intestine,  where  they  can  exert  the  desired  result. 

The  aliphatic  hydrocarbons  have  narcotic  properties,  and  these  are 
increased  by  the  introduction  of  an  hydroxyl  group  to  form  alcohols. 
If  more  hydroxyl  groups  are  introduced,  as  in  glycerol,  the  narcotic  action 
disappears,  the  hydroxyl  merely  playing  the  role  of  an "  anchoring " 


1 8  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

.group.  The  narcotic  action  of  many  substances  on  the  other  hand  is 
associated  with  the  presence  of  alkyl  groups,  especially  ethyl  groups. 
The  alkyl  group  is  the  active  portion  of  the  molecule  in  the  alcohols,  and 
not  the  hydroxyl  group.  If  halogen  and  especially  chlorine  replaces  the 
hydrogen  atoms  in  a  hydrocarbon,  the  narcotic  action  is  greatly  increased. 
The  presence  of  an  ethyl  group  in  a  considerable  number  of  compounds, 
gives  to  the  substance  the  power  of  connecting  with  the  nervous  system. 
An  excessively  large  dose  of  ethyl  alcohol  produces  sleep,  but  a  number 
of  compounds  with  ethyl  groups  have  been  discovered  which  have  a  hyp- 
notic action  in  smaller  doses. 

Alkaloids. — The  alkaloids  are  not  widely  distributed  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  They  are  classified  usually  into  five  groups,  as  follows:  (i) 
Pyridin  Alkaloids,  such  as  coniin  from  Conium  maculatum,  nicotin 
from  Nicotina  tabacum.  (2)  Pyrrolidin,  Alkaloids.  (3)  Tropan  Alkaloids, 
such  as  atropin  from  Atropa  Belladonna.  (4)  Quinolin  Alkaloids,  as 
strychnin  from  Strychnos  Nux-vomica.  (5)  Isoquinolin  Alkaloids,  as 
morphin.  Four  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  oxygen  enter 
into  the  formation  of  the  alkaloid.  A  few  contain  no  oxygen.  Most  are 
colorless  crystalline  solids,  a  few  being  liquid.  Most  are  insoluble  in 
water,  but  dissolve  in  ether,  alcohol,  chloroform.  They  have  a  bitter  taste 
and  have  strong  physiological,  or  toxic  properties,  even  in  small  doses, 
and  a  slight  alteration  in  molecular  structure  often  produces  a  decided 
change  in  their  physiological  and  toxic  properties.  For  example,  the 
reduction  of  the  nitrogenous  ring  generally  produces  a  marked  increase 
in  the  toxicity  and  strength  of  the  action  of  the  poison  and  sometimes 
alters  its  character.  Pyridin  is  non  toxic  and  lowers  blood  pressure,  but 
piperidin  is  very  toxic  and  raises  blood  pressure.  The  size  and  position 
of  the  side  chains  attached  to  the  ring  have  an  important  effect.  Pyridin 
can  by  reduction  yield  more  active  substance  by  the  entrance  of  aliphatic 
chains  which  is  accompanied  by  the  appearance  of  intoxicating  action. 
The  toxic  action  of  piperidin  itself,  which  is  not  very  strong,  is  increased 
in  a  methyl  piperidin  and  still  more  in  a  methyl  piperidin  and  a-propyl- 
piperidin  (coniin).  The  toxicity  of  these  substances  is  in  the  ratio  of 
i  :2  :4.:8. 

Ptomaines. — The  bacteria  and  certain  fleshy  fungi  have  associated 
with  their  activities  a  number  of  basic  substances  with  simple  constitution, 
such  as  methylamine  CH3  NH2;  dimethylamine,  (CH3)2  NH;  trimethy- 
lamine,  (CH3)3  N;  putrescin,  NH2  (CH2)4  NH2;  cadaverin,  NH2  (CH2)5 


POISONING   BY   PLANTS.      GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  19 

NH2,  and  cholin,  muscarin,neurin  which  are  much  more  complex.  These 
substances  are  formed  in  decomposing  flesh.  Cholin  and  muscarin  are 
found  in  the  toad-stool,  Amanita  muscaria.  Muscarin  and  neurin  are  both 
very  poisonous,  whereas  cholin  is  slightly  toxic. 

Cholin  is  found  in  the  seeds  and  fruits  of  Pinus  cembra,  nut  of  Areca- 
catechu,  endosperm  of  coconut  (Cocos  nucifera)  root  of  sweet  flag  Acorus- 
calamus,  hop  Humulus  lupulus.  Betain  another  member  of  the  group 
occurs  in  the  juice  of  the  beet  and  in  the  tuber  of  Helianthus  tuberosus. 
All  these  substances  are  strong  bases  and  answer  the  general  reactions  for 
alkaloids.  Immune  substances  are  not  produced  for  these  chemical  poi- 
sons as  for  the  phytotoxins  later  described. 

Glucosides.  These  are  chemical  substances  of  considerable  complexity 
and  yield  glucose  on  decomposition  with  one  or  more  other  compounds, 
usually  of  an  aromatic  nature.  The  reaction  is  mostly  hydrolysis.  For 
example,  amygdalin  is  hydrolyzed  by  emulsin,  an  enzyme,  to  glucose, 
benzaldehyde  and  prussic  acid. 

C20  H27,  NOn  +  2H2O  =  2C6H12O6  +  C6H5CHO  +  HCN. 

This  reaction  expresses  that  of  the  cyanogenetic  glucosides  or  those 
which  on  hydrolysis  yield  hydrocyanic,  or  prussic  acid,  a  deadly  poison. 

Loew  from  the  chemical  standpoint  states  that  all  substances  which 
are  capable  of  acting  on  aldehyde  or  amino  groups,  even  when  in  dilute 
solution,  must  be  poisonous  for  living  tissue  on  which  they  will  exert  a 
substituting  action.  The  greater  the  reactivity  of  a  substance  for  alde- 
hyde (CHO)  or  amino  (NH2)  groups,  the  greater  will  be  its  physiologic 
effect  and  its  toxicity. 

Vegetable  Toxins  (Phytotoxins). — The  production  of  substances 
possessing  the  essential  features  of  the  toxins  is  not  limited  entirely  to 
the  bacterial  cell.  They  are  found  in  the  flowering  plants  and  are  called 
phytotoxins.  The  chief  phytotoxins.  are  abrin  from  the  Job's  tear  plant 
A  brus  precatorius;  crotin  from  the  seeds  of  Croton  tiglium;  ricin  from  the 
castor-oil  bean,  RMHUS  communis;  robin  from  the  leaves  and  bark  of 
the  black  locust,  Robinia  pseudacacia;  phallin  from  the  toad-stool  Amanita 
phalloides,  and  the  toxin  causing  hay-fever  found  in  pollen  grains.  These 
substances  are  very  similar,  resembling  proteins  in  many  respects-,  for 
they  can  be  salted  out  of  solutions  in  definite  portions  of  the  precipitate, 
are  precipitated  by  alcohol  and  are  slowly  destroyed  by  proteolytic 
enzymes.  Recent  work  by  Harris,  Mendel  and  Osborne  has  shown 


20  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

that  the  toxic  properties  of  ricin  are  associated  inseparably  with  the  co- 
agulable  albumin  of  the  castor  beans,  and  were  able  to  isolate  this  toxal- 
bumin  in  such  purity  that  one  one-thousandth  of  a  milligram  (o.oooooi 
gram)  was  fatal  per  kilo  of  rabbit  and  solutions  of  o.ooi  per  cent  would 
agglutinate  red  corpuscles.  The  phytotoxins  have  been  used  extensively 
in  the  investigation  of  immunity,  since  they  obey  the  same  laws  as  bac- 
terial toxins.  They  seem  to  possess  haptophore  and  toxophore  groups 
and  immunity  is  readily  obtained  against  them.  The  immunity  is  speci- 
fic, ricin  antitoxin,  for  example  not  protecting  against  abrin. 

Their  poisonous  action  is  manifested  in  agglutination  of  the  erythro- 
cytes,  local  cellular  destruction,  and  in  hemolysis.  Such  toxalbumins 
as  crotin  and  phallin  are  actively  hemolytic,  that  is  the  hemoglobin  escapes 
from  the  stroma  of  the  blood  corpuscles  into  the  surrounding  fluid.  Ricin, 
abrin  and  robin  are  more  marked  by  their  agglutinating  action,  hemolysis 
being  produced  only  by  relatively  large  doses.  They  resemble  the  bac- 
terial toxins,  in  that  immunity  can  be  secured  against  them,  and  the 
immune  serum  will  prevent  their  hemolytic  action.  The  hemolytic, 
or  agglutinating,  action  of  these  toxalbumins,  except  phallin,  is  not  de- 
stroyed by  exposure  to  65°  to  7o°C.  of  heat,  but  ioo°C  does  destroy  it. 
The  action  of  these  substances  is  not  like  that  of  the  enzymes  in  being 
quantitative,  a  given  amount  acting  on  a  given  amount  of  corpuscles  to 
which  it  is  bound. 

Another  quite  distinct  group  of  vegetable  hemolyzing  agents  are  the 
saponin  substances  closely  related  to  the  glucosides  and  found  as  strong 
protoplasmic  as  well  as  hemolytic  poisons.  They  differ  from  the  true 
toxins  in  being  resistant  to  heat,  having  no  resemblance  to  proteins  and 
do  not  give  rise  to  antibodies  on  immunization  of  animals.  The  degree  of 
their  toxicity  is  not  directly  proportional  to  their  hemolytic  activity  for 
they  seem  to  chiefly  injure  the  nerve-cells.  Apparently  hemolysis  is 
brought  about  by  action  on  the  lipoids  of  the  red  corpuscles,  for  addition 
of  cholesterol  to  saponin  prevents  its  hemolytic  effect.  Kobert  has 
shown  that  all  cause  hemolysis,  some  in  dilutions  as  great  as  i  :  100,000. 
The  following  are  the  most  important  members  of  this  group:  sapotoxin 
obtained  from  Quillaja,  cyclamin  from  Cyclamen,  solanin  from  members  of 
the  potato  family,  helvellic  acid  from  fungus  Helvetia  esculenta,  phallin 
from  toadstool,  Amanita  phalloides. 

Applicability  of  Ehrlich's  Theories. — As  the  theory  of  Ehrlich  is  applic- 
able in  the  study  of  the  activity  of  such  toxins  and  the  immunization  of 


POISONING  BY   PLANTS.      GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  21 

animals,  a  brief  statement  of  Ehrlich's  views  is  given  here.  Ehrlich 
reasoned  that  if  it  is  by  the  chemical  side  chains  of  the  organic  molecules 
that  change  in  the  chemical  composition  of  toxic  bodies  is  brought  about 
then  the  living  cell  has  side-arms  or  receptors  of  the  cell  molecule  by  which 
the  haptophore  (binding  portion  of  the  toxin  molecule)  fits  "like  a  key 
fits  a  lock."  Each  molecule  of  the  animal  cell  has  innumerable  receptors 
of  which  only  a  certain  number  are  suitable  for  the  anchoring  of  the  toxin 
molecule  to  the  living  cell.  If  only  a  few  toxin  molecules  are  united  with 
the  cell  receptors  then  the  toxin  is  of  low  toxicity  and  the  effects  on  the 
cell  will  be  slight,  if  more  are  anchored,  the  poisonous  effects  will  be  greater 
or  entirely  destructive  to  the  cell.  Regeneration  of  the  receptors  takes 
place,  and  if  these  are  produced  in  such  numbers  by  the  activity  of  the 
antigen,  or  poison,  they  are  crowded  off  and  find  their  way  into  the  blood 
serum,  where  they  are  capable  of  anchoring  the  toxin  molecules  as  before 
and  thus  become  the  antibodies,  or  antitoxins,  which  finally  bring  about  a 
neutralization  of  the  toxin.  The  persistence  of  these  antibodies  (anti- 
toxins) in  the  animal  system  produces  immunization.  We  may  summarize 
Ehrlich's  conception  of  the  nature  of  toxins,  as  follows:  Each  molecule  of 
toxin  consists  of  a  great  number  of  organic  complexes  grouped  as  in 
organic  compounds  generally  as  side  chains  about  a  central  radical,  or 
ring.  One  or  more  of  these  complexes  has  a  chemical  affinity  for  certain 
chemical  constituents  of  the  tissues  of  animals  susceptible  to  the  toxin  with 
which  the  toxin  molecule  reunites.  The  toxin  molecule  must  contain  two 
separate  atom  groups.  One  of  these  must  possess  the  power  of  binding 
and  be  stable.  This  is  the  haptophore,  or  anchoring  group.  The  other 
one  by  which  the  toxin  molecule  exerts  its  deleterious  action,  must  be 
more  easily  changed  or  destroyed.  This  is  the  toxophore,  or  poison 
group.  An  animal  is  susceptible  to  a  toxin  only  when  its  cells  contain 
receptive  substances  which  possess  a  chemical  affinity  for  the  haptophore 
of  the  toxin  molecule  and  also  substances  which  can  be  influenced  harm- 
fully by  the  toxophore  of  the  same  molecule.  The  nature  of  the  changes 
brought  about  by  the  toxophore  of  the  toxin  molecule  is  not  understood, 
but  there  are  many  resemblances  to  the  action  of  enyzmes  or  ferments, 
but  the  analogy  is  not  complete.  We  find  the  closest  analogy  to  the  enzy- 
mes in  the  toxic  substances  that  destroy  the  bacteria  and  the  red-blood 
corpuscles  (bacteriolysins  and  hemolysins] . 

The  immunity  against  enzymes  and  toxic  bodies  seems  to  have  an 
identical  origin  in  the  over  production  of  the  cellular  receptors  which  bind 


22 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 


the  haptophore  groups  to  the  cells.  These  excessive  receptors  find  their 
way  into  the  blood  where  they  combine  with  the  enzyme,  or  toxin,  so 
that  it  cannot  enter  into  combination  with  the  cells.  To  emphasize  this 
point,  the  receptors  eliminated  by  toxin  absorption  are  not,  therefore, 
simply  reproduced  in  the  same  quantity  in  which  they  are  lost,  but 
are  reproduced  in  excess  of  the  simple  physiological  needs  of  the  cell. 
Continuous  and  increasing  dosage  with  the  poison,  consequently,  soon 


PIG.  3. — Diagram  showing  body  cell  molecule,  cell  receptors  with  linkage  for  toxin 
molecule  with  a  binding  group  (haptophore)  and  a  toxic  group  (toxophore).  The 
receptors  produced  in  excess  by  the  stimulation  of  the  body  cell  become  the  antitoxin 
molecules  which  are  set  free  into  the  blood  and  then  unite,  as  shown  in  the  diagram, 
with  the  toxin  molecules  by  means  of  their  haptophores.  The  free  antitoxin  molecules 
thus  unite  with  the  poison  molecules  in  the  blood  and  thus  protect  the  body  cells. 

leads  to  such  excessive  production  of  the  particular  receptive  atom-groups 
that  the  cells  involved  in  the  process  become  overstocked  and  cast  them 
off  to  circulate  freely  in  the  blood.  These  freely  circulating  receptor  atom 
groups  with  specific  affinity  for  the  toxins  used  in  their  production  repre- 
sent the  antitoxins.  These,  by  uniting  with  the  poison  before  it  can 
reach  the  sensitive  cells,  prevent  its  deleterious  action  (Fig.  3).  The 
theory  of  Ehrlich,  in  brief,  then,  depends  upqn  the  assumptions  that  toxin 


POISONING  BY   PLANTS.      GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  23 

and  antitoxin  enter  into  chemical  union,  that  each  toxin  possesses  a  specific 
atom  group  by  means  of  which  it  is  bound  to  a  preexisting  side  chain  of 
the  affected  cell,  and  that  these  side  chains,  under  the  influence  of  repeated 
toxin  stimulation,  are  overproduced  eventually  and  cast  off  by  the  cell 
into  the  circulation  where  they  act  as  the  antitoxin. 

The  phy  to  toxins  act  directly  with  erythrocytes  in  a  manner  like  saponin. 
They  do  not  require  the  presence  of  amboceptors  and  complements  as  in 
serum  hemolysis,  but  produce  hemolysis  directly. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GREENE,    CHARLES    W.:    Experimental    Pharmacology.     A   Laboratory    Guide.     P. 

Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1909. 
HAAS,  PAUL  and  HILL,  T.  G.:  An  Introduction  to  the  Chemistry  of  Plant  Products. 

Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  second  edition,  London  and  New  York,  1917. 
Hiss,  PHILIP  H.  and  ZINSSER,  HANS:  A  Text-book  of  Bacteriology.     D.  Appleton  and 

Co.,  New  York,  1918. 
KOLMER,  JOHN  A.:  A  Practical  Text-book  of  Infection  Immunity  and  Specific  Therapy. 

W.  B.  Saunders  Co.,  Phila.,  1917. 
LONG,  HAROLD  C.:  Plants  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.     Cambridge:  at  the  University 

Press,  1917. 

MARSHALL,  CHARLES  E.:  Microbiology.  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &Co.,  Philadelphia,  1911. 
MAY,  PERCY:  The  Chemistry  of  Synthetic  Drugs.  Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  New 

York,  1911. 
PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  A  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.     The  Torch  Press,  Cedar  Rapids, 

Iowa,  Part  I,  1910. 
PEMBRAY,  U.  S.  and  PHILLIPS,  C.  D.  F.:  The  Physiological  Action  of  Drugs.     Edward 

Arnold,  London,  1901. 
STITT,   E.   R.:  Practical   Bacteriology,   Blood  Work  and  Animal  Parasitology.     P. 

Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1914. 
WELLS,  H.   GIDEON:  Chemical  Pathology  (second  edition).     W.  B.  Saunders  Co., 

Philadelphia,  1914. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestion  to  Teachers. — A  supply  of  small  animals  can  be  kept  in  cages  in. the 
msement  of  the  laboratory  for  the  purpose  of  testing  out  the  poisonous  effect  of  various 
suspicious  poisonous  plants.  White  mice,  white  rats,  guinea  pigs,  frogs  and  the  like 
can  be  kept  in  captivity.  Wild  mice  and  rats  caught  alive  in  traps  might  also  be 
used  and  the  common  kinds  of  pigeons. 

A  supply  of  poisonous  drugs  (carefully  safeguarded)  should  be  kept  and  the  various 
reagents  used  in  testing  them  also.  The  laboratory  should  be  equipped  with  the 
necessary  glass  ware,  Bunsen  burners  and  chemical  apparatus  for  the  use  of  the  class. 


24  PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Place  a  thin  transverse  section  of  the  endosperm  of  Strychnos  Nux-vomica  on  a 
slide  and  treat  with  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  if  strychnin  is  present  there  will 
be  a  red  coloration  of  the  cell-contents.     Place  a  small  crystal  of  potassium  chromate 
beneath  the  cover-glass  and  a  violet  color  will  be  produced. 

2.  Place  a  thin  transverse  section  of  the  rhizome  of  the  monk's  hood,  Aconitum 
Napellus,  on  a  slide  and  treat  with  a  few  drops  of  50  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid.    A  carmine 
red  coloration  will  appear  and  this  is  a  specific  reaction  of  aconitin  found  in  the  paren- 
chyma surrounding  the  vascular  bundles.     This  reaction  is  more  intense,  if  the  sections 
have  been  previously  warmed  in  a  sucrose  solution. 

3.  The- presence  of  cyanogenetic  glucosides  may  be  detected  as  follows:  Crush  the 
part  of  the  plant  in  water  and  set  aside  for  some  time,  then  filter  and  add  to  the 
filtrate  a  little  silver  nitrate.     If  hydrocyanic  acid  is  present  a  white  precipitate  is 
formed. 

4.  Place  thick  sections  of  the  plant  tissue  to  be  examined  in  a  5  per  cent,  alcoholic 
solution  of  potash  for  about  a  minute  then  transfer  to  a  solution  containing  2.5  per 
cent,  ferrous  sulphate  and  i  per  cent,  ferric  chloride  and  keep  at  about  6o°C.  for  ten 
minutes.     Then  treat  the  section  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (one  part  strong  acid 
to  six  parts  of  water)  for  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  if  hydrocyanic  acid  is  present  a  blue 
precipitate  of  Prussian  blue  appears. 

5.  Guignard's  test  may  be  used  as  an  alternative  with  four.     White  filter-paper  is 
dipped  in  a  i  per  cent,  solution  of  picric  acid  and  dried.     When  ready  to  be  used  moisten 
the  treated  papers  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  and  again  dry. 
These  test  papers  should  be  kept  in  stoppered  bottles.     Exposed  to  the  fumes  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid  the  paper  rapidly  changes  to  an  orange-red  color  as  the  test  is  a  delicate 
one. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PHARMACOIOGY 

Experiments  on  the  Action  of  Veratrin  (See  Greene,  Charles  Wilson,  Experimental 
Pharmacology.  A  Laboratory  Guide  for  the  Study  of  the  Physiological  Action  of 
Drugs,  third  edition,  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  1909,  page  50  and  fig.  on  page  51.  This 
book  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  in  such  experiments.  As  the  time  for  this  course  is 
limited  such  experimental  work  should  be  performed  as  a  class  demonstration  by  the 
professor  and  his  assistant,  rather  than  as  individual  student  exercises.  The  work 
below  should  be  performed  as  a  sample. 

1.  Veratrin  on  the  frog.     The  dose  for  a  frog  is  about  0.5  c.c.  of  a  i  per  cent,  solution 
of  the  fluid  extract  of  Veratrum  viride,  or  0.3  c.c.  of  o.oi  per  cent,  veratrin.     Compare 
with  the  effects  of  aconite  and  barium.     See  experiment  4. 

2.  Veratrin  on  the  mammal.     Give  a  cat  or  rabbit  i  c.c.  of  o.i  per  cent,  veratrin 
hypodermically,  or  i  c.c.  of  i  per  cent,  for  a  dog.     Keep  under  observation  for  a  con- 
siderable time. 

3.  Veratrin  on  the  heart  strip.     Subject  the  contracting  strip  of  ventricle  to  0.005 
to  0.05  per  cent,  veratrin  in  saline. 


POISONING  BY   PLANTS.       GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  25 

4.  Veratrin  on  the  frog's  heart.     Pith  a  frog,  expose  the  heart  and  take  a  tracing 
when  perfused  with  0.005  per  cent,  veratrin  in  Ringer's  solution  (o.oi  per  cent,  destroys 
coordination). 

5.  Veratrin  on  the  isolated  mammalian  heart.     Prepare  the  apparatus  for  the 
Isolated  heart  experiment,  isolate  a  cat's  heart  and  perfuse  with  0.0002  per  cent,  veratrin 

in  Locke-blood  solution.     See  Figs.  4,  5,  6. 

6.  Veratrin  on  the  simple  muscle  contraction  of  the  frog.    Ligate  one  leg  of  a 
frog  and  give  a  hypodermic  of  0.05  c.c.  of  o.i  per  cent,  veratrin.     After  15  minutes 


FIG.  4. — Apparatus  as  set  up  to  demonstrate  the  contractions  of  the  apex  muscle 
of  "terrapin's  ventricle.  The  glass  L-shaped  holder  should  be  set  on  the  stand  high 
enough  to  allow  of  easy  change  of  solution  tubes.  The  figure  shows  the  tube  of  physio- 
logical saline  and  other  details  for  the  better  illustration  of  the  mounting  of  the  heart 
strip.  (Greene). 


prepare  the  veratrinized  muscle  and  take  simple  muscle  contractions  to  show  the  form 

of  the  contraction  wave,  using  a  tuning  fork  to  record  the  drum  speed.     Compare  this 

curve  with  that  of  the  undrugged  muscle.  / 

The  frog  of  experiment  i  may  be  used  to  show  the  veratrin  effect  on  muscle  work. 

Stimulate  once  in  three  seconds  in  this  experiment,  since  the  relaxation  may  not  be 
i  complete  in  an  interval  of  two  seconds. 

7.  Veratrin  on  the  circulation  and  respiration  of  a  mammal.  Take  a  record  of  the 
j  blood-pressure  from  the  carotid  of  an  anesthetized  dog.  Tracheotomize  and  take 
;  respiratory  tracings.  Give  i  c.c.  of  i  per  cent,  veratrin  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 
1  When  marked  cardiac  slowing  appears  cut  the  vagi  and  note  the  effects  on  the  heart. 


PASTORAL    AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


FIG.  5. — The  terrapin's  heart,  ventral  view,  showing  how  to  cut  an  apex  strip  for 
experimental  purposes  and  how  to  split  this  apex  into  smaller  pieces..     (Greene.) 


FIG.  6. — Experiment  showing  the  action  of  digitalis  on  the  rhythm  and  tone  of  a 
strip  of  terrapin's  ventricle.  The  strip  was  contracting  in  physiological  saline.  Be- 
tween the  words  "on"  and  "off  "  it  was  subjected  to  0.06  per  cent,  of  digitalis  in  saline. 
(Greene.) 


POISONING  BY   PLANTS.       GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  27 

8.  See  KOLMER,  JOHN  A. :  A  Practical  Text-book  of  Infection,  Immunity  and  Specific 
Therapy.  Philadelphia,  W.  B.  Saunders  Company  (second  edition),  1917,  page  898, 
for  the  following  experiment  with  phy  to  toxins:  Prepare  a  i  per  cent,  suspension  of 
washed  rabbit  and  guinea-pig  corpuscles.  Into  a  series  of  six  small  test-tubes  place 
increasing  doses  of  ricin  or  abrin  solution  as  follows:  o.i,  0.2,0.3,  °-4>  °-5>  and  0.8  c.c. 
Add  i  c.c.  of  rabbit-cell  emulsion  to  each  and  sufficient  normal  salt  solution  to  make 
the  total  volume  in  each  tube  equal  to  2  c.c.  A  seventh  tube  is  the  corpuscle  control 
and  contains  i  c.c.  of  the  erythrocyte  suspension  and  i  c.c.  of  salt  solution.  Prepare 
a  similar  series  of  tubes  with  the  guinea-pig  erythrocyte  suspension.  Shake  the  tubes 
gently  and  incubate  for  two  hours. 

Queries. — Do  any  of  the  tubes  show hemolysis  or  hemagglutination?  Is  the  action 
the  same  with  both  bloods?  Does  the  plant  toxin  show  a  selective  affinity? 


CHAPTER  3 
POISONOUS  FUNGI  AND  OTHER  SPORE-BEARING  PLANTS 

This  chapter  will  deal  with  the  poisonous  character  of  the  lower  plants, 
those  which  form  spores  instead  of  true  seeds.  The  bacteria,  such  as 
the  organisms  which  produce  anthrax  and  glanders,  are  not  included, 
because  the  study  of  their  pathogenicity  is  elaborated  in  various  works 
on  bacteriology  and  they  are  considered  as  a  special  phase  of  medical 
research  requiring  an  elaborate  technique.  There  are  a  number  of  fungi, 
such  as  corn  smut,  Ustilago  Ze&,  reputed  to  be  poisonous  to  stock,  but  such 
belief  needs  confirmation.  The  following  fungi  have  been  studied  thor- 
oughly and  there  can  be  no  doubt^as  to  their  poisonous  action. 

Ergot  (Cla-viceps  purpurea). — The  ergot  fungus  is  found  on  rye  both  in 
America  and  Europe,  where  during  wet,  warm  weather  it  may  be  extremely 
prevalent.  It  gains  entrance  to  the  host  at  the  base  of  the  young  ovary 
penetrating  the  ovary  wall  and  gradually  replacing  the  tissues  of  the  rye 
ovary.  This  is  accompanied  by  an  enlargement  of  the  ovary,  which  at 
its  upper  end  presents  a  somewhat  spongy  character.  This  is  due  to  the 
outgrowth  of  the  mycelium  in  the  form  of  twisted  strands,  the  marginal 
hyphae  of  which  acting  as  conidiophores  abstrict  off  conidiospores.  This 
early  stage  was  known  as  the  Sphacelia  stage.  Later,  as  the  time  for  the 
maturing  of  the  healthy  grains  arrives  the  diseased  ovaries  will  be  found 
to  be  replaced  by  bluish-black,  horn-like  bodies  which  project  conspicuously 
from  between  the  glumes  of  the  rye  spikelet.  The  rye  ovary  is  replaced 
by  a  hard  body  with  blackish  surface  and  white  interior  known  as  the 
sclerotium.  The  ergot  spurs,  or  sclerotia,  perennate  as  such  until  the 
following  spring,  when  they  send  up  one  or  several  outgrowths,  or  stroma, 
with  a  knob-like  end  of  a  yellowish-brown  color.  In  the  hyphal  tissue, 
which  comprises  the  knob-like  portion  of  the  stroma,  flask-shaped  peri- 
thecia  are  formed  with  short  necks  and  slightly  protruding  ostioles.  The 
asci  contained  in  these  perithecia  are  elongated  and  contain  eight  needle- 
shaped  ascospores,  which  measure  60  to  70^  in  length,  and  issue  from  the 
tip  of  the  ascus  by  a  small  opening.  These  ascospores  bud  off  condio- 

28 


POISONOUS   FUNGI  AND    OTHER   SPORE -BEARING   PLANTS          2Q 

spores,  which  are  capable  of  infecting  the  ovaries  of  rye  plants,  which 
have  started  their  growth  toward  maturity  the  following  season. 

Chemical  Nature  of  Ergot. — The  ergot  spurs  are  used  medicinally 
under  police  regulations,  for  they  are  dangerous  and  poisonous.  Ergot 
contains  0.20  to  0.25  per  cent,  of  ergotinin,  as  an  amorphous  compound, 
and  the  physiologically  active  alkaloid  ergotoxin  or  hydroergotinin 
When  taken  in  sufficient  amounts  ergot  causes  serious 


PIG.  7. — Calf  No.  2  after  being  fed  diseased  "paspalum"  heads  some  days.  Note 
stiff  appearance  with  legs  rather  wide  apart  to  assist  in  standing.  (After  Brown,  H.  B. 
and  Ranck,  E.  M.:  Forage  poisoning  due  to  Claviceps  Paspali  on  Paspalum.  Technical 
Bulletin  No.  6,  Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1915,  p.  21.) 

poisoning  of  the  domestic  animals  and  man.  Extensive  outbreaks  of 
ergotism  have  occurred  in  the  United  States.  In  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Germany  and  Russia,  the  peasants  frequently  eat  bread  made  out  of 
flour  in  which  ergot  spurs  have  been  ground.  They  suffer  from  gangrenous 
affections  of  the  extremities  with  a  loss  of  the  hair,  teeth  and  finger  nails. 
A  nervous  form  of  ergotism  has  also  been  prevalent.  Cattle  eating  ergoted 
grain  show  similar  gangrenous  and  nervous  symptoms,  the  loss  of  hox>fs, 
tails  and  horns.  Ergot  can  be  controlled  to  some  extent  by  the  selection 


30  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

of  the  grain  seed  and  the  removal  of  all  ergoted  masses,  when  detected 
in  the  fields. 

A  closely  related  species,  Claviceps  microcephala,  was  submitted  to 
the  writer  by  the  late  Dr.  Leonard  Pearson  on  red-top  hay  in  1902,  which 
had  been  responsible  for  gangrenous  affection  of  a  herd  of  cattle  at  Scran- 
ton,  Pennsylvania.  Claviceps  paspali,  found  on  grains  of  P  asp  alum  in 


PIG.  8. — Calf  No.  2.  This  picture  shows  animal  in  stage  of  excitement  during 
which  it  cannot  remain  on  its  feet.  Note  peculiar  expression  of  eyes,  also  the  chin 
resting  on  the  ground  to  help  maintain  position.  All  that  was  necessary  to  cause  the 
animal  to  assume  this  position  was  to  clap  the  hands  and  jump  toward  it.  The  nervous 
paroxysm  would  immediately  come  on  and  last  one  or  two  minutes.  (After  Brown, 
H.  B.  and  Ranfk,  E.  M.:  Forage  poisoning  due  to  Claviceps  Paspali  on  Paspalum. 
Technical  Bulletin  No.  6,  Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1915,  p.  22.) 

Maryland  on  P.  lave,  according  to  J.  B.  S.  Norton,  is  responsible  for  the 
poisoning  of  cattle  in  Maryland  and  Mississippi  (Figs.  7,  8,  9,  10). 

Symptoms. — The  detailed  symptoms,  as  gathered  from  various  sources, 
are  the  following:  Symptoms  referable  to  the  digestive  tract  such  as 
nausea  vomiting,  colic,  diarrhoea  or  constipation  occur  in  both  the  nervous 
(spasmodic)  and  gangrenous  forms  of  ergotism.  Pregnant  animals  very 
frequently  abort.  In  the  spasmodic  form  of  the  disease,  there  is  an  over 


POISONOUS    FUNGI   AND    OTHER   SPORE -BEARING   PLANTS          31 

stimulation  of  the  central  nervous  system.  There  is  a  tonic  contraction 
of  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  limbs,  anaesthesia  of  the  extremities,  muscular 
trembling,  general  tetanic  spasms,  convulsions  and  delirium.  Death 
usually  occurs  from  secondary  causes. 

The  gangrenous  type  of  the  disease  is  marked  by  coldness  and  anaes- 
thesia of  the  extremities  succeeded  by  dry  gangrene  of  these  parts  with 
loss  of  the  feet,  tips  of  the  ears,  dropping  of  the  tail,  shedding  of  the  hair 


FIG.  9. — Calf  No.  2.  Note  that  the  entire  lower  jaw,  neck,  and  breast  are  used 
by  the  animal  in  maintaining  this  peculiar  position.  Note  also  that  the  eye  is  partially 
closed  and  drawn;  this  is  very  different  from  the  first  symptoms  noticed.  (After  Brown, 
H.  B.  and  Ranck,  E.  M.:  Forage  poisoning  due  to  Claviceps  Paspali  on  Paspalum. 
Technical  Bulletin  No.  6,  Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  19.15,  p.  24.) 

and  teeth,  etc.  Exhaustion  is  the  cause  of  death  in  this  form  of  ergotism. 
Acu(e  poisoning  is  characterized  by  profuse  salivation,  dilatation  of  the 
pupils  of  the  eyes,  rapid  breathing  and  frequent  pulse  with  vomiting,  (in 
dogs).  The  animal  cries  out,  has  twitchings  of  the  convulsive  sort, 
staggering  gait,  paraplegia,  intense  thirst  and  coma,  followed  by  death. 

Golden-rod  Rust  (Coleosporium  solidaginis). — This  fungus  is  found  as 
a  rusty  outbreak  on  the  leaves  of  various  Compositae,  such  as  Solidago 


32  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

canadensis,  S.  rigida,  S.  serotina  and  as  Vernonia  noveboracensis,  the  iron- 
weed.  Horses  have  been  poisoned  in  New  Jersey  and  in  Wisconsin  by 
eating  golden-rod  and  the  trouble  has  been  attributed  to  the  presence  of 
this  rust  fungus  in  growth  on  the  plant.  The  disease  has  baffled  veteri- 
narians, but  the  fact  that  horses  have  remained  healthy  when  feeding 
in  pastures  without  golden-rod,  or  when  they  are  driven  from  pasture 
before  the  golden-rod  appears  seems  significant.  The  attention  of  the 


FIG.  10. — Calf  No.  2  prostrate.  Note  drawn  expression  of  eyes  and  slight  drawing 
back  of  head  (aposthotonus) .  In  this  condition  the  animal  breathes  rapidly,  shows 
consciousness,  and  responds  to  noise  by  twitching.  (After  Brown,  H.  B.  and  Ranck,  E. 
M.:  Forage  poisoning  due  to  Claviceps  Paspali  on  Paspalum.  Technical  Bulletin  No.  6, 
Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1915,  p.  25.) 

writer  was  first  called  to  this  fungus  in  material  received  from  Newfield, 
N.  J.,  on  Sept.  22,  1900. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  general  dullness,  ears  drooped,  tem- 
perature elevated  ranging  from  103°  to  io7°F.  during  the  entire  course 
or  the  disease.  The  visible  mucous  membranes  are  pallid  and  spots  are 
seen.  The  legs  of  the  animal  become  swollen  and  adematous  enlarge- 
ments appear  under  the  abdomen.  The  spleen  is  enlarged,  weighing  from 
xis  to  ten  pounds.  Blood  disintegrated.  The  appetite  is  fairly  good,  but 
emaciation  begins  as  the  disease  advances.  There  is  loss  of  coordination 


POISONOUS   FUNGI  AND   OTHER   SPORE-BEARING  PLANTS  33 

and  death  takes  place  in  from  two  weeks  to  two  months  from  the  onset 
of  the  disease. 

Description  of  Fungus. — The  fungus  is  characterized,  as  follows: 
The  uredosori  are  rounded,  soon  become  powdery  and  scattered.  The 
uredospores  are  orange  colored  produced  in  short  chains.  They  are 
spherical,  oblong  or  subcylindrical  and  spiny,  20-35  X  15-20/4.  The 


FIG.  ii. — Amanita  muscaria.  (After  Patterson,  Flora  W.  and  Charles,  Vera  K.: 
Mushrooms  and  other  common  fungi.  Bull.  175,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1915.  Fig.  3.) 

teliosori  (teleutosori)  are  at  first  orange,  later  becoming  red.  They  are 
flat,  often  confluent  and  form  frequently  waxy  crusts.  The  teliospores 
(teleutospores)  are  cylindrical  or  somewhat  clavate,  generally  four-celled, 
60-70  X  I5-25M- 

Fly  Agaric,  Fly  Poison  (Amanita  muscaria  =  Venenarius  muscarius). 
This  is  a  fleshy  toadstool  widely  distributed  in  woods,  the  borders  of 
woods  and  thickets  in  temperate  regions,  being  especially  abundant  under 
and  near  pine  trees.  It  is  a  striking  plant  and  because  of  its  showy  char- 
acter and  beauty  additionally  dangerous.  Its  colors  are  paler  in  this 
country  than  in  Europe.  The  cap,  or  pileus,  is  convex-globose,  flattening 
out  as  it  expands  and  from  eight  to  twenty  centimeters  broad  with  a 


34  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

slightly  viscid  surface  when  fresh  and  slightly  striate  margin.  The  color 
varies  from  red,  or  orange,  to  yellow  and  sprinkled  with  numerous  whitish- 
yellow  flakes.  The  gills,  or  lamellae,  are  white,  rather  broad,  reaching  the 
stalk  or  stipe  and  slightly  decurrent  upon  it.  The  spores  are  white,  sub- 
globose  to  ellipsoid  9-10  X  7~8/i.  The  stipe  is  stuffed,  or  hollow 
usually  rough  with  scales  and  in  color  white,  or  pale  yellow.  The  base 
of  the  stipe  is  bulbous  and  the  white,  or  yellowish  volva  breaks  up  early 
so  that  it  is  rarely  seen.  The  superior  annulus  is  large,  membranous, 
white  and  persistent  (Fig.  n). 

Chemical  Nature  of  Poison. — The  fly  agaric  was  so  called  because 
decoctions  of  it  were  used  for  killing  flies.  The  active  poisonous  principle 
of  chief  interest  in  this  fungus  is  an  alkaloid  muscarin,  although  Kobert 
finds  two  other  alkaloids  cholin  and  a  third  fungous  atropin.  Muscarin 
(HON  (CH3)3CH2CH(OH)2)  is  a  substance  with  tobacco-like  odor  and  an 
extremely  violent  poison,  .003  to  .005  of  a  gram  (.06  grain)  being  a  very 
dangerous  dose  for  a  man.  The  amount  of  this  poison  varies  with  soil 
and  climate.  Cholin  when  oxidized  is  converted  into  muscarin,  and  if 
it  is  subject  to  bacterial  decomposition,  it  is  changed  to  neurin  an  ex- 
tremely poisonous  base.  Hence  old,  partially  decomposed  specimens  of 
fly  agaric  are  more  actively  poisonous  than  fresh  ones. 

Symptoms. — V.  K.  Chestnut  sums  up  the  symptoms,  as  follows: 
"Vomiting  and  diarrhoea  always  occur,  with  a  pronounced  flow  of  saliva, 
suppression  of  the  urine,  and  various  cerebral  phenomena  beginning  with 
giddiness,  loss  of  confidence  in  one's  ability  to  make  ordinary  movements, 
and  derangements  of  vision.  This  is  succeeded  by  stupor,  cold  sweats,  and 
a  very  marked  weakening  of  the  heart's  action.  In  cases  of  rapid  recovery, 
the  stupor  is  short  and  usually  marked  with  mild  delirium.  In  fatal  cases, 
the  stupor  continues  from  one  to  two  or  three  days,  and  death  at  last 
ensues  from  the  gradual  weakening  and  final  stoppage  of  the  heart's  ac- 
tion." 

Treatment. — The  preliminary  treatment  should  be  the  administration 
of  an  emetic,  such,  as  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  tepid  mustard  water,  and  after- 
wards the  use  of  a  strong  purgative,  so  as  to  .remove  all  traces  of  the 
offending  substance.  The  hypodermic  injection  of  atropin  (^foo  to 
3^0  of  a  gram)  should  then  be  made,  as  it  is  an  almost  perfect  physiological 
antidote  for  muscarin  (Fig.  12).  Many  lives  have  been  saved  by  the  use 
of  atropin. 


POISONOUS   FUNGI   AND    OTHER    SPORE-BEARING   PLANTS 


35 


Death  Cup  (Amanita  phalloides,  Venenarius  phalloides}. — This  hand- 
some, solitary  toadstool  is  found  in  woods,  or  along  the  borders  of  woods, 
very  rarely  indeed  in  open  places.  The  cap,  or  pileus,  is  convex  companu- 

late  and  later  expanded  from  three       , . , 

to  fifteen  centimeters  broad.  The 
upper  surface  smooth,  slightly 
viscid  when  moist  and  decorated 
with  fragments  of  the  universal 
veil.  Its  color  is  pure  white  to 
yellow,  yellowish-green,  green,  gray, 
brown  or  blackish  with  a  usually 
entire  margin,  rarely  striate.  The 
taste  is  not  objectionable  but  the 
odor  is  disagreeable.  The  lamellae 
are  broad  and  white,  rounded  at  the 
base,  free  or  adnexed  to  the  stipe. 
The  spores  are  globose,  hyaline 
7-1  o//..  The  floccose-scaly  stipe  is 
bulbous  at  the  base  and  stuffed,  or 
hollow.  The  superior  annulus  is 
thin,  membranous  and  ample.  The 
basal  volva  is  white  attached  to 
the  base  of  the  large,  rounded  bulb 
(Fig.  13). 

Poisonous  Substances. — A  ma- 
nila  phalloides  owes  its  toxic  prop- 
erties to  at  least  two  poisonous 
constituents.  One  is  a  powerfully 
hemolytic  agent  which  is  destroyed 
by  heating  thirty  minutes  at  65°, 
acting  directly  upon  the  red  blood 
corpuscles,  even,  if  removed  from 
the  serum.  Ford  and  his  asso- 


FIG.  12. — Contraction  of  a  frog's  heart : 
A,  normal;  B,  three  minutes  after  the 
application  of  one  drop  of  a  10  per  cent, 
solution  of  muscarin;  C,  at  the  point  in- 
dicated by  the  star  two  drops  of  a  10  per 
cent,  solution  of  muscarin  were  applied. 
Two  minutes  after  the  end  of  this  curve 
the  heart  commenced  to  contract  again 
with  a  slow  and  feeble  beat.  D,  three 
minutes  after  the  application  of  a  weak 
solution  of  atropin  sulphate  in  normal 
tap-water  saline.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  rhythmic  contractions  are  restored 
and  the  contraction  and  relaxation  be- 
come so  complete  that  the  excursion  of 
the  lever  is  greater  than  in  Curve  A ,  but 
the  frequency  is  less.  The  time  is 
marked  in  seconds.  (Adapted  from 
Pembrey,  M.  S.  and  Phillips,  C.  D.  F. 
The  Physiological  Action  of  Drugs,  1907, 
Figs.  52  and  53,  pp.  76-7?-) 


ciates  have  shown  that  this  hemolysin  is  a  glucoside,  and  this 
belongs  to  the  saponin  group,  yielding  on  hydrolysis  pentose  and  vola- 
tile bases,  and  yet  capable  of  acting  as  an  antigen,  since  actively 
antihemolytic  sera  can  be  produced  by  immunizing  animals  such  as  rab- 
bits. Such  rabbits  can  be  immunized  to  extracts  of  Amanita  phalloides 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


and  the  serum  of  such  rabbits  will  neutralize  five  to  eight  times  the  lethal 
dose  for  guinea-pigs,  and  is  anti-hemolytic  for  the  hemolysin  of  Amanita, 
when  diluted  to  i-iooo.  As  he  and  Abel  had  found  this  hemolytic  poison 

of  Amanita  phattoides  to  be  a  glu- 
coside,  this  observation  is  to  be 
interpreted  as  a  successful  pro- 
duction of  an  antibody  for  a 
non-protein  poison,  a  glucoside. 
This  substance  corresponds  to 
the  phallin  of  Robert,  which  is 
usually  given  as  the  active 
principle  of  this  deadly  toad- 
stool. Wells  suggests  that  prob- 
ably this  hemolytic  poison  is 
not  the  important  agent  in 
poisoning  by  Amanita  phalloides, 
as  it  is  easily  destroyed  by  heat 
and  the  digestive  fluids.  The 
thermostable  poison,  amanita- 
toxin,  gives  no  reactions  for 
either  glucosides,  or  proteins  and 
does  not  confer  any  antitoxic 
property  to  the  blood  of  im- 
munized animals.  Amanita- 
toxin  kills  acutely,  the  animals 
dying  in  24-48  hours,  and  show- 
ing no  changes  beyond  a  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  internal  or- 
gans. The  hemolysin  kills 
slowly  in  three  to  ten  days, 
causing  local  edema  and  hemo- 
globinuria. 

Symptoms. — V.  K.  Chestnut  gives  a  synopsis  of  the  symptoms  of 
poisoning  by  Amanita  phalloides.  "The  fundamental  injury  is  not  due, 
as  in  the  case  of  muscarin,  to  a  paralysis  of  the  nerves  controlling  the 
action  of  the  heart,  but  to  a  direct  effect  on  the  blood  corpuscles  (see  above) 
These  are  quickly  dissolved  by  phallin,  the  blood  serum  escaping  from  the 
blood  vessels  into  the  alimentary  canal,  and  the  whole  system  being 


FIG.  13. — Amanita  phalloides.  (After 
Patterson,  Flora  W.  and  Charles,  Vera  K.: 
Mushrooms  and  other  Common  Fungi, 
Bull.  75,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1915,  Fig.  2.) 


POISONOUS   FUNGI   AND    OTHER    SPORE-BEARING   PLANTS  37 

rapidly  drained  of  its  vitality.  No  bad  taste  warns  the  victim,  nor  do 
the  preliminary  symptoms  begin  until  nine  to  fourteen  hours  after  the 
poisonous  mushrooms  are  eaten.  There  is  then  considerable  abdominal 
pain  and  there  may  be  cramps  in  the  legs  and  other  nervous  phenomena, 
such  as  convulsions,  and  even  lockjaw  or  other  kinds  of  tetanic  spasms. 
The  pulse  is  weak,  the  abdominal  pain  is  rapidly  followed  by  nausea, 
vomiting,  and  extreme  diarrhoea,  the  intestinal  discharges  assuming  the 
"rice-water"  condition  characteristic  of  cholera.  The  latter  symptoms 
are  persistently  maintained,  generally  without  loss  of  consciousness,  until 
death  ensues,  which  happens  in  from  two  to  four  days."  There  is  no 
known  antidote  by  which  the  effects  of  phallin  can  be  counteracted,  but 
the  experiments  immunizing  rabbits  against  this  poison  suggest  profitable 
lines  of  experimentation  in  which  man  may  be  ultimately  immunized. 

Helvellic  Acid. — Helvellic  acid  from  Helvetia  esculenta  has  the  empiric 
formula  C^HsoOy.  It  is  a  deadly  poison  soluble  in  hot  water,  so  that  if 
the  fungus  is  boiled  in  water  and  the  water  thrown  away,  the  toadstool 
becomes  harmless.  Helvellic  acid,  if  intravenously  injected,  produces 
hemoglobinuria  and  icterus  with  hemoglobulin  infarcts  in  the  kidneys. 
The  symptoms  of  poisonous  by  this  substance  resemble  in  a  marked 
degree  those  of  the  deadly  phallin,  the  dissolution  of  the  red  corpuscles 
of  the  blood  being  one  of  the  most  marked  and  most  dangerous.  This  is 
accompanied  by  nausea,  vomiting,  jaundice  and  stoppage  of  the  kidneys. 
No  antidote  is  known  for  helvellic  acid. 

General  Considerations. — Mushrooms  may  be  injurious  to  man  even 
if  poisonous  varieties  are  not  eaten  by  habits  of  gluttony  and  gorman- 
dizing, where  large  quantities  of  food  are  ingested.  There  is  the  greatest 
difference  with  regard  to  the  digestibility  of  such  fleshy  fungi.  Some  can 
digest  them  readily,  others  find  considerable  difficulty.  When  not  pro- 
perly digested  by  ferment  action  deleterious  products  may  be  formed  in 
the  gastro-intestinal  tract.  Spoiled  fleshy  fungi  may  through  the  action 
of  bacteria  develop  a  ptomaine  called  cholin  C2H4OHN — (CHs^OH, 
which  becomes  an  active  poison  when  oxidized. 

Groups  of  Poisonous  Fungi  (Roch's  Classification. — As  this  chapter 
has  dealt  with  the  fleshy  fungi  and  as  questions  of  poisoning  by  them  is  of 
general  interest,  the  classification  of  the  Dr.  Roch  from  the  clinical  stand- 
point, as  given  in  a  paper  by  Beaman  Douglass  summarizing  his  work,  will 
be  found  useful  in  elucidating  the  matter.  Dr.  Roch  has  made  six  groups. 

Group  i.-~ Fungus  exciting  Action  of  Muscle  Fiber. — Ergot  of  rye, 
Clamceps  purpurea,  which  causes  strong  contraction  of  the  "muscles 


38  PASTORAL'  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

especially  of  the  uterus  and  the  blood  vessels,  belongs  to  this  group. 

Group  2. — Fungi  containing  a  Hemolytic  Substance.  Gyromitra  escu- 
lenta,  which  has  caused  ten  deaths  in  Europe  within  ten  years,  and 
Amanita  phattoides  possess  hemolytic  powers. 

Group  3. — Fungi  producing  G 'astro-enteritis.  This  class  includes  such 
forms  as  Panus  stipticus,  Boletus  sensibilis,  Cantharellus  aurantiacus, 
Lepiota  Morgani,  Russula  emetica,  Lactarius  torminosus,  Stropharia, 
Amanita  muscaria  and  all  peppery  tasting  Russulae  and  Lactarii.  The 
usefulness  of  these  forms  is  doubtful,  but  if  boiled  in  acidulated  water 
(i  cup  vinegar  to  a  pint  of  water)  for  ten  minutes,  washed  afterwards  and 
all  liquids  thrown  away,  this  class  may  be  cooked  and  eaten  with  safety. 

Group  4. — Fungi  affecting  chiefly  the  Nervous  System  and  the  Gastro- 
intestinal System.  This  group  includes  Boletus  luridus,  Amanita  cothur- 
nata,  A.  muscaria,  A.  pantherina,  Clitocybe  illudens,  Inocybe  infida  and 
perhaps  Pholiota  autumnalis.  These  poisons  affect  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord.  Roch  states  that  Amanita  muscaria  does  not  deserve  its  bad  re- 
putation and  states  emphatically  that  it  does  not  kill.  He  recalls  the 
fact  that  in  Russia  it  is  eaten  freely,  if  the  cap  is  peeled  and  the  fungus 
soaked  in  acidulated  water.  In  Siberia  also  the  natives  use  the  poison 
of  this  plant  in  religious  ceremonies  to  produce  cerebral  intoxication, 
excitement  and  ectasy.  He  points  to  the  fact  that  the  poison  is  eliminated 
from  the  body  by  the  kidneys  with  great  rapidity  and  that  in  order  to 
continue  this  cerebral  debauch  the  dose  is  frequently  repeated  by  drinking 
the  excretion.  The  lesser  symptoms  are  like  a  real  alcoholic,  or  cocaine, 
intoxication;  excited  heart  action,  dizziness,  laughing  and  crying,  a  desire 
to  jump  and  dance,  to  run  and  sing.  The  devotees  of  muscarin  are 
perfectly  happy,  they  are  in  high  spirits,  experience  religious  ectasy  and 
this  is  all  increased  by  ocular  hallucination,  in  which  distances  are  greatly 
increased,  and  size  is  distorted.  They  also  have  delightful  visions  of 
singing  birds,  palaces  and  beautiful  landscapes.  Roch  states,  however, 
that  to  meet  death  in  this  class  the  sufferer  must  have  eaten  Amanita 
pantherina.  He  states  that  poisoning  by  Amanita  muscaria  results  in  100 
per  cent,  recovery.  These  statements  are  in  direct  contradiction  of  those 
usually  accepted  (see  ante)  and  should  be  carefully  reinvestigated. 

Group  5. — Stimulating  only  the  Nervous  System.  Pan&olus  cam- 
panulatus,  P.  venenosus,  P.  retirugis  and  P.  semiglobatus  are  included  here. 

Group  6. — Fungi  causing  Cell  Destruction  after  a  Prolonged  fncubation. 
The  fungi  of  this  group  cause  a  destruction  of  certain  cells  of  the  body 
after  a  prolonged  period  of  unmanifested  activity  and  are  therefore 


POISONOUS   FUNGI   AND    OTHER   SPORE -BEARING   PLANTS  39 

extremely  dangerous  and  usually  fatal.  There  are  only  eight  species 
belonging  to  this  terrible  class,  viz.;  Amanita  phalloides,  A.  solitaria, 
A.  virosa,  A.  vena,  A.  citrina,  A.  mappa  and  Amanitopsis  volvata. 
Two  poisons  are  found  in  fungi  of  this  class:  phallin  and  amanitatoxin 
which  have  been  discussed  as  to  their  activity  on  a  previous  page. 

Horse-tail  (Equisetum  arvense). — This  fern  plant  has  underground 
rhizomes  divided  into  nodes  and  in- 
ternodes.  Short  secondary  roots  arise 
from  the  subterranean  nodes  which  are 
surrounded  by  brown,  whorled  scale 
leaves.  The  first  shoot  to  appear  early 
in  the  spring  is  chlorophylless  with  in- 
ternodes  and  nodes.  A  whorl  of  brown 
scale  leaves  arise  from  the  nodes.  The 
summit  of  this  shoot  terminates  in  a 
sporangiferous  cone  consisting  of  sporo- 
phylls  bearing  bag-like  sporangia  filled 
with  green  spores  covered  by  four  hygro- 
scopic elaters.  Later  a  green,  branching 
shoot  arising  from  the  rhizome  and 
persists  through  the  season  (Fig.  14). 

Cases. — The  investigations  of  Rich  and 
Jones  show  that  the  horse-tail  causes 
much  and  frequently  fatal  poisoning  of 
horses  in  Vermont.  During  the  summers 

of  IQOI  and   1902  Rich  in  his  professional   the  left  come  up  in  spring,  the  much- 

work  about  Burlington  had  twenty-three  %£?^^£g*£fc 

Cases    of    horses    poisoned    by    this    plant   the  hay;  in  the  center  are  the  under- 

and  his  records  showed  forty-one  cases  $™f  *£  £L£aZj?SZ 

which  he  had  attended  within  five  years.  Clovers,  Bulletin  94.  Vermont  Agric- 
In  Europe  a  number  of  cases  of  equisetosis  ^f  E*terimenl  s'ation'  Ma^ 
have  been  reported. 

Symptoms. — The  first  evidence  of  trouble  is  more  or  less  an  emaciated 
conditions.  The  animal  in  two  to  five  weeks  loses  control  of  its  muscles, 
sways  and  staggers  about.  Later  it  has  paralysis  of  the  hind  legs  and  as 
a  result  it  falls  down.  Attempting  to  rise  the  horse  becoming  nervous 
struggles  violently  to  arise.  Finally  there  is  general  paralysis,  uncon- 
sciousness and  coma.  The  lungs  and  kidneys  become  congested,  the  pulse 


40  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

slow  and  toward  the  end  rapid  and  weak.  There  is  sugar  in  the  urine. 
Death  may  come  suddenly  or  be  postponed  in  chronic  cases  for  several 
weeks. 

Poisonous  Principle. — According  to  Lohmann  there  is  probably 
an  alkaloidal  nerve  poison  in  species  of  Equisetum  called  by  him  equisetin. 

Treatment. — Stop  the  feed  containing  horse-tail,  follow  with  a  purga- 
tive pill  of  one  ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  one  or  two  drachms  of  ginger,  and 
sufficient  soft  soap  to  make  a  ball.  This  is  put  down  the  throat  of  the 
horse  at  one  dose  following  with  bran  mashes  night  and  morning  until 
the  digestive  tract  is  cleared.  Nux  vomica  is  later  administered  to 
overcome  the  muscular  incoordination. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ATKINSON,  GEORGE  FRANCIS:  Mushrooms  Edible,  Poisonous,  etc.     Andrus  &  Church, 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1900,  pages  52-76;  242-252. 
BROWN,  H.  B.  and  RANCK,  E.  M.:  Forage  Poisoning  Due  to  Claviceps    Paspalin  Pas- 

palum.     Technical  Bull.   6,  Mississippi  Agricultural   Experiment  Station,  Feb., 

IQIS- 
DOUGLASS,  BEAMAN:  Mushroom  Poisoning.     Torreya,   17:   171-175,  October,   1917; 

207-221,  December,  1917. 
FORD,  W.  W. :  The  Toxins  and  Antitoxins  of  Poisonous  Mushrooms,  Amanita  phalloides. 

Journ.   Inf.  Dis.,  3:  191;  The  Distribution  of  Poisons  in  Mushrooms.     Science, 

30:  97-108. 
HAAS,  PAUL  and  HILL,  T.  G.:  An  Introduction  to  the  Chemistry  of  Plant  Products. 

Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  New  York  and  London,  1917. 
HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W.:  Ergotism  Account  of  an  Outbreak  at  Scranton,  Pa.,  due  to 

Eating  Red  Top,  Agroslis  vulgaris  with  Claviceps  microcephala  (Walh.)  Tul.,  Rept. 

Pa.  Dept.  Agr.,  1902:  160;  A  Text-book  of  Mycology  and  Plant  Pathology.     P. 

Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1917. 
LONG,   HAROLD  C.:  Plants  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.     Cambridge  at  the  University 

Press,  1917. 
MclLVAiNE,  CHARLES:  One  Thousand  American  Fungi.     The  Bowen-Merrill  Company, 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1900. 

MURRILL,  WILLIAM  ALPHONSO:  Edible  and  Poisonous  Mushrooms.  New  York,  1916. 
PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  A  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.  The  Torch  Press,  Cedar  Rapids, 

Iowa,  Part  I,  1910;  Part  II,  1911. 
RICH,  F.  A.  and  JONES,  L.  R.:  A  Poisonous  Plant  the  Common  Horsetail  (Equisetum 

arvense).     Bulletin  95,  Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  June,  1902. 
SCOTT,  J.  L.:  Golden-rod  Killing  Horses.     Garden  and  Forest,  viii:  477-478,  November 

17,  1895. 
WELLS,  H.  GIDEON:  Chemical  Pathology.     W.  B.  Saunders  Company,  Philadelphia 

and  London  (second  edition),  1914. 


POISONOUS    FUNGI   AND    OTHER   SPORE-BEARING   PLANTS  41 

WILSON,  A.  STEPHEN:  Observations  and  Experiments  on  Ergot.     Gardeners'  Chronicle 
new  ser.,  iv:  774,  Dec.  18,  1875;  807,  Dec.  25,  1875. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — A  supply  of  ergot  spurs  should  be  kept  in  dried  state 
for  the  examination  of  the  class.  Ergoted  rye  heads  should  be  kept  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities for  class  use.  The  teacher  should  gather  as  many  specimens  of  Amanita  muscaria 
and  A.  phalloides  as  possible  and  preserve  these  in  alcohol  for  class  use.  For  the 
chemical  tests,  the  teacher  should  have  pure  cholin,  phallin  and  muscarin. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  and  examine  closely  the  ergoted  heads  of  rye  noting  the  relationship  of 
fungous  sclerotia  and  rye  host.  t 

2.  Study   cross  section  of  the  ergot  sclerotia  stained  with  Bismarck  Brown  and 
mounted  in  balsam. 

3.  Draw  and  study  fresh  (if  obtainable)  or  alcoholic  specimens  of  fly  agaric  (Amanita 
muscaria)  and  death  cup  (Amanita  phalloides). 

4.  Mount  spores  from  these  two  fungi  for  microscopic  comparison. 

5.  If  time  permit  paraffin  sections  of  the  cap  and  gills  of  one  or  both  fleshy  toadstools 
can  be  given  to  the  class  for  study. 

6.  Test  for  cholin  (after  Haas  and  Hill). 

A.  Boil  a  strong  aqueous  solution;  decomposition  ensues  and  trimethylamine  is 
given  off,  which  may  be  recognized  by  its  fish-like  smell. 

B.  Add  platinic  chloride  to  the  aqueous  solution;  a  double  platinum  salt  is  formed 
which  crystallizes  on  standing.     The  crystals  are  soluble  in  1 5  per  cent,  alcohol.     Should 
the  crystals  not  appear,  proceed  as  follows:  Dissolve  cholin  in  alcohol  and  add  alcoholic 
solution  of  platinic  chloride.     Filter  off  the  yellow  precipitate,  wash  with  alcohol  and 
dissolve  in  as  little  water  as  possible.     Place  the  solution  in  a  watch-glass  and  stand  in  a 
desiccator.     Hexagonal  plates  will  be  deposited. 

7.  In  order  to  detect  very  small  quantities,  Rosenheim  recommends  the  following 
method  Qourn.  Physiol.,  33:  220,  1905).     Prepare  the  double  platinum  salt,  place  a 
drop  or  two  on  a  glass  slip,  and  allow  to  evaporate.     Add  a  drop  of  solution  containing 
2  grams  of  iodine  and  6  grams  of  potassium  iodide  in  too  c.c.  of  water  and  examine 
under  the  microscope.     Dark  brown  prisms  or  plates  will  appear  and  then  disappear 
as  evaporation  takes  place.     They  will  reappear  on  adding  another  drop  of  iodine 
solution. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PHARMACOLOGY 

(See  Greene,  Charles  W.,  p.  55) 

1.  Ergot  on  the  frog.     Give  0.5  c.c.  of  the  fluid  extract  of  ergot. 

2.  Ergot  on  the  heart  muscle.     Change  a  contracting  heart  strip  from  saline  to  a 
10  per  cent,  solution  of  Squibb's  fluid  extract  of  ergot  in  saline  solution.     Allow  it 
to  act  for  five  minutes.     Take  a  continuous  record. 


CHAPTER  4 
GYMNOSPERMOUS  POISONOUS  PLANTS 

The  plants  treated  of  in  this  chapter  are  members  of  the  division  of 
seed  plants,  Spermaphyta,  but  their  seeds  are  naked  at  maturity  not 
inclosed  in  some  seed  vessel,  or  fruit.  They  are  mostly  resinous  shrubs 
and  trees  with  evergreen  leaves  (the  deciduous  cypress  and  larch  being 
exceptions).  They  are  included  with  Class  GYMNOSPERM.E,  which  com- 
prises the  sago  palm  (Cycas),  ginkgo,  yews,  pines,  junipers,  etc.  within  its 
confines. 

Yew  (Taxus  canadensis). — This  low  spreading  shrub  is  found  in  woods 
from  Newfoundland  to  New  Jersey,  southeastern  Pennsylvania  on  north- 
facing  slopes  and  Virginia  west  to  Wisconsin,  Iowa  and  Minnesota.  It 
contains  the  bitter-tasting  alkaloid,  taxin  (CavH^NOio)  which  acts  as  a 
heart  depressant.  The  plant  on  account  of  its  reputed  poisonous  character 
is  called  poison  hemlock  in  some  places.  The  bark  leaves  and  seeds  are  all 
poisonous.  The  reddish,  sweetish  aril  surrounding  the  seeds,  is  not  poi- 
sonous and  is  eaten  freely  by  fruit-loving  birds. 

Cases  and  Symptoms. — Many  cases  of  poisoning  and  of  death  of  ani- 
mals from  eating  the  fresh  foliage  have  been  recorded  in  the  veterinary 
journals,  and  yet  there  are  contradictory  statements  as  to  the  results  of 
eating  the  foliage  of  this  spreading  bush.  The  symptoms  of  poisoning  are : 
Death  may  be  sudden,  resembling  apoplexy.  It  may  be  preceded  by  stag- 
gering and  convulsions  and  in  cases  of  long  standing  there  is  gastro-enteri- 
tis.  "There  is  a  pronounced  slackening  of  respiration  and  circulation,  the 
pulse  being  small,  slow.  Sensibility  is  diminished.  There  is  a  fall  of 
temperature,  the  skin  and  extremities  being  cold.  The  head  is  lowered, 
the  eyes  are  closed  and  there  is  decubitus.  In  some  cases  pregnant  ani- 
mals have  aborted.  In  the  horse,  there  are  muscular  tremors  and  fre- 
quent urination.  In  cattle  and  sheep  rumination  is  suspended  and  there 
is  more  or  less  pronounced  tympanites,  with  eructation,  nausea  and  some- 
times vomiting.  Pigs  bury  the  head  in  the  litter  and  sleep,  their  sleep 
being  interrupted  frorn  time  to  time  by  nausea  and  groaning;  or  the  ani- 
mals rise,  stagger  about,  and  lie  down  again.  With  fatal  quantities  the 

42 


GYMNOSPERMOUS    POISONOUS    PLANTS  43 

foregoing  symptoms  may  be  followed  by  coma  with  death  in  two  hours 
or  more  after  the  poisoning,  but  more  generally  and  usually  in  horses, 
asses  and  mules  (but  also  in  cattle)  there  is  no  period  of  coma,  the  excite- 
ment is  less  pronounced  and  often  unobserved,  and  death  appears  very 
sudden.  The  animals  stop,  shake  their  heads,  respiration  is  modified, 
there  is  falling,  and  death  (sometimes  with  convulsions)  results  from 
cessation  of  the  heart's  action"  (Cornevin). 

The  western  yew  (Taxus  brevifolia)  is  also  said  to  be  poisonous,  as  also 
the  English  yew  (Taxus  baccata)  with  much  circumstantial  evidence 
against  it. 

Common  Juniper  (Juniperus  communis). — This  plant  is  poisonous 
and  yields  a  poisonous  oil  obtained  from  its  berries.  Rusby  refers  to  the 
poisonous  nature  of  the  plant  and  Schaffner  records  that  goats  are  poisoned 
by  eating  its  foliage.*  It  grows  on  limestone  and  sandstone  in  the  north- 
ern United  States  and  Rocky  mountains. 

Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginianus). — This  is  a  tree  of  wide  distribution 
from  New  Brunswick  to  British  Columbia,  south  to  Florida,  Texas,  New- 
Mexico  and  Arizona.  Dr.  Halsted  has  reported  that  goats  have  been 
poisoned  by  browsing  upon  it. 

Redwood  (Sequoia  semperuirens) . — Redwood  leaves  are  said  to  be 
poisonous.  The  tree  is  confined  principally  to  the  coastal  region  of 
California. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GARRATT,  THOMAS  and  RADCLYFFE,  W.  F.:  The  Yew  Poisonous  to  Cattle.     Gardeners' 

Chronicle  and  Agricultural  Gazette,  1872,  715  (May  25). 
J.  G.  J.  S.:  Yew  Poisoning.     Gardeners'  Chronicle  and  Agricultural  Gazette,  1872, 

509  (April  13) 
LONG,  HAROLD  C. :  Plant  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.     Cambridge  at  the  University  Press, 

1917,  72-76. 
PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  A  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.     Part  I,  1910,  101-102;  Part  II,  1911, 

325-332. 
SOHN,   CHARLES  E.:  Dictionary  of  the  Active  Principles  of  Plants;  Alkaloids;  Bitter 

Principles;  Glucosides.     Balliere,  Tindall  and  Cox,  London,  1894. 
WATNEY   HELEN  G.     Yew  Poisoning.     The  Garden,  vii,  311,  Apr.  10,  1875. 
WITTSTEIN,  G.  C.  and  VON  MUELLER,  BARON  FERD:  The  Organic  Constituents  of 

Plants  and  Vegetable  Substances  and  Their  Chemical  Analysis.     M'Carron,  Bird 

&  Co.,  Melbourne,  1878. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

i.  Study  and  draw  dried  specimens  of  eastern  American  yew  (Taxus  canadensis) 
or  western  yew  (T.  brevifolia)  or  the  redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens) . 


44  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

2.  Study    and  draw  the  aril  and  sectioned  seeds  of  the   yew  shrub  previously 
preserved  in  alcohol. 

3.  Study  and  draw  branches,  berries,  etc.,  of  the  red  cedar  (Juniperus  virginiana) 
similarly  preserved. 

4.  Taxin  obtained  by  purchase  from  the  analytical   chemist,  is  a  white,  loose 
amorphous  powder,  very  bitter,  slowly  soluble  in  water,  readily  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
fusible  to  a  yellow  resin  by  gentle  heat,  soluble  in  dilute  acids.     It  should  be  kept  as  a 
stock  supply  for  the  following  tests  which  should  be  performed  by  each  member  of 
the  class.     Precipitate  by  caustic  alkalis  and  tincture  of  iodine.     Test  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  which  produces  a  purplish-violet  color.     This  color  can  be  de- 
colorized with  water. 


CHAPTER  5 
MONOCOTYLEDONS  AS  POISONOUS  PLANTS 

The  poisonous  plants  treated  of  in  this  chapter  belong  to  the  Monoco- 
tyledoneae.  Botanically  the  class  is  distinguished,  as  follows:  The 
permanent  roots  are  secondary  being  produced  adventitiously,  or  at  the 
time  of  embryonic  development.  The  sap  bundles  in  the  stem  are  scattered 
and  are  closed,  that  is,  each  one  is  surrounded  with  a  bundle  sheath  of 
sclerenchyma,  which  prevents  further  enlargement  of  the  bundle.  The 
principal  veins  of  the  leaves  are  parallel.  The  floral  symmetry  is  of  the 
trimerous  kind  and  the  embryo,  usually  surrounded  with  reserve  food, 
possesses  only  one  seed  leaf,  or  cotyledon. 

Fodder  or  Silage  Poisoning. — Two  grasses  are  considered  responsible 
for  poisoning  when  fed  as  dry  fodder  or  silage.  These  grasses  are  maize, 
or  Indian  corn  (Zea  Mays]  and  sorghum (Andropogon  Sorghum).  The 
author  is  not  aware  that  any  profound  investigation  has  been  made  of  the 
exact  conditions  under  which  poisoning  is  to  be  attributed  to  cattle  eating 
fodder,  or  silage.  Two  alternatives  seem  to  be  possible.  Corn  stalks 
and  the  stems  of  sorghum  are  not  easily  digestible  and  the  impaction  of 
their  fibers  in  the  digestive  tract  may  bring  on  severe  cases  of  indigestion, 
especially  where  the  cattle  do  not  have  access  to  plenty  of  water.  The 
other  alternative  is  in  the  poisonous  action  of  toxic  substances  developed 
in  the  stored  maize,  or  sorghum.  It  is  known,  that  when  corn  silage  is 
not  properly  stored,  that  is,  where  air  has  free  access-to  all  parts  of  the 
silage,  that  prussic  acid  develops.  A  glucoside  occurs  in  the  maize  stem 
and  this  is  capable  of  being  converted  into  hydrocyanic  acid,  HCN,  by  an 
enzyme  in  the  plant.  After  periods  of  extreme  drought  in  the  case  of 
sorghum,  the  leaves  of  the  plant  contain  considerable  quantities  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid.  This  acid  is  an  extremely  toxic  substance  being  the  most 
rapidly  acting  drug  we  possess.  Lethal  amounts  paralyze  the  respira- 
tory center  and  the  heart  muscles,  death,  as  a  rule,  being  due  to  failure  of 
respiration  with  almost  simultaneous  cessation  of  the  action  of  the  heart. 

Twenty-one  head  of  cattle,  out  of  a  total  number  of  32  animals,  were 
poisoned  at  Aurora,  Colorado  on  August  3,  1901  by  eating  Kaffir  corn,  a 

45 


46  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

form  of  sorghum  in  which  considerable  amounts  of  prussic  acid  were 
detected.  Eleven  head  lived,  but  four  had  violent  spasms,  but  recovered. 
The  symptoms  were  drowsiness,  running  at  the  eyes,  twitching  of  the 
muscles,  numbness  of  the  limbs,  staggering  gait,  inability  to  stand, 
involuntary  passing  of  the  urine  and  feces.  The  statement  was  made 
that  the'  cattle  seemed  to  all  go  crazy  at  once,  then  stagger  like  a  person 
intoxicated,  fall  in  all  directions  and  die  where  they  fell. 

Pellagra. — Pellagra  has  in  the  past  been  attributed  to  eating  mouldy 
corn,  or  maize.  Pellagra  is  a  severe  and  chronic  skin  disease  occurring 
among  the  squalid  and  destitute,  who  live  largely,  as  in  the  southern 
states,  upon  maize,  or  Indian  corn.  The  disease  begins  in  the  spring  being 
characterized  by  eruptions  over  the  entire  body  associated  with  indigestion 
and  diarrhoea.  The  skin  exfoliates  and  ulcerates  and  the  person  loses 
flesh.  The  disease  occurs  in  southern  Europe,  in  northern  Africa  and 
among  the  "crackers"  of  the  southern  United  States  and  the  inmates  of 
insane  asylums  and  state  penitentiaries.  The  disease  has  been  attributed 
to  eating  spoiled  corn,  to  a  colloidal  silica  in  the  food,  but  the  current 
view  is  that  it  is  due  to  the  lack  of  vitamines  in  the  food.  These  are 
present  in  minute  quantities,  but  are  essential  to  health  .  When  they  are 
absent  from  food  the  nutrition  is  at  once  affected  and  a  deficiency  disease 
results.  Scurvy,  beri-beri  and  pellagra  belong  to  this  class.  The  lack 
of  one  vitamine  causes  scurvy,  the  lack  of  another  beri-beri,  while  the 
absence  of  a  third  in  certain  foods  like  corn  causes  pellagra.  This  seems 
to  be  the  latest  and  most  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  cause  of  the 
disease. 

Darnel  (Lolium  temulentum). — The  injurious  character  of  this  grass  at 
least  from  its  weedy  side  have  been  known  since  early  times,  for  in  the 
New  Testament  attention  is  drawn  to  the  tares  and  the  wheat.  It  is  an 
annual  grass  with  smooth  stems  growing  from  2-3  feet  tall  with  rough  leaf 
sheaths  and  short  ligule.  The  spikes  are  6  to  12  inches  long  and  the 
spikelets  5-7  flowered.  The  lower  glumes  are  sharp  pointed,  equally  in 
length  the  spikelets,  and  the  lemma  is  awned,  or  awnless. 

Symptoms. — The  grains  of  darnel,  when  ground  up  with  wheat  and 
made  into  flour,  show  their  poisonous  effects  in  producing  headaches, 
drowsiness,  giddiness,  uncertain  gait,  and  stupefaction,  in  older  animals 
convulsions,  loss  of  sensation  and  death.  Loliin  is  the  narcotic  principle 
occurring  in  the  pure  state  as  a  dirty  white,  amorphous,  bitter  substance 
causing,  according  to  Hackel,  eruptions,  trembling  and  confusion  of  sight 


MONOCOTYLEDONS    AS    POISONOUS    PLANTS  47 

in  man  and  flesh-eating  animals  and  very  strongly  in  rabbits,  but  it  does 
not  influence  pigs,  horned  cattle  or  ducks. 

Nature  of  Poison.- — It  appears  from  recent  investigation  that  the 
grains  of  darnel,  which  are 
injurious,  contain  a  poiso- 
nous fungus  (EndoconiUium 
temulentum)  upon  which 
their  poisonous  effects  prob- 
ably depend.  It  is  believed 
that  grains  of  darnel  with- 
out the  fungus  are  not 
poisonous.  The  darnel 
fungus,  according  to  Free- 
man, lives  in  the  outer 
layers  of  the  grain  penetrat- 
ing the  aleurone  layer  and 
invading  the  starchy  end- 
osperm. There  exists  in 
the  nucellus,  at  the  base 
of  the  scutellum  of  the 
darnel  embryo  and  at  the 
base  and  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  inner  groove  a  layer 
of  hyphae  which  lies 
directly  against  the 
embryo,  constituting  an 
infective  layer.  When  the 
embryo  pushes  out  during 
germination,  the  hyphae 
grow  into  the  developing 
seedling  and  keep  pace 
with  its  growth  and  can  ,  JIG'  'S/~Death  ffmas  <*y*ade™s  ven*nos™ '•> 

(After   Hall,   Harvey   M.   and  Gates,    Harry  S.:  Slock 

be  detected  in  the  growing  Poisoning  Plants  of  California.     Bull.  249,  University 
noint  throughout  the  life  of   °f  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,   1915, 
,         ,  P-  227.) 

the  plant. 

Death  Camas  (Zygadenus  venenosus). — The  Indians  of  the  northwestern 
United  States  were  acquainted  with  the  medicinal  and  poisonous  proper- 
ties of  this  plant  and  the  earliest  white  explorers  mention  it  in  their 


48  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

journals.  At  least  nine  species  of  Zygadenus  are  poisonous  and  the  above 
mentioned  one  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  their  action.  The  plant  is 
also  called  wild  onion,  wild  leek.  It  arises  from  a  tunicated  bulb  and  has 
narrow,  erect,  basal  leaves  and  a  scape,  a  foot  or  more  high,  becoming  a 
spike  of  yellowish- white  flowers,  which  blossom  about  June  ist  (Fig.  15). 
It  matures  its  fruit  in  July  and  then  the  whole  aerial  part  of  the  plant  dies 
down  to  the  ground.  It  is  native  to  the  west  from  Assiniboia  and  Neb- 


Pic.  16. — Sheep  No.  168  at  1.30  P.M.,  showing  weakness  in  forelegs  after  being  fed 
Death  Camas  (Zygadenus  venenosus).  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.  and 
Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Zygadeus  or  Death  Camas,  Bulletin  125,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, 1915,  Plate  V,  Fig.  i.) 

raska  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  chief  period  of  danger  is  in 
May  and  June  when  its  dark  green  leaves  are  attractive  to  stock.  Cattle 
are  susceptible  to  the  poison  and  some  deaths  have  been  reported,  but 
cases  among,  cattle  are  uncommon.  Swine  are  said  to  eat  the  bulbs 
without  bad  results,  but  horses  are  poisoned.  Sheep  are  the  animals  most 
frequently  poisoned  (Figs.  16  and  17).  Detailed  experiments  by  agents 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  show  that  the  principal 
symptoms  are  salivation,  nausea,  muscular  weakness,  coma  and  sometimes 


MONOCOTYLEDONS   AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS 


49 


FIG.  17. — Sheep  No.  168  at  5.45  P.M.,  when  unable  to  rise  after  being  fed  Death 
Camas  (Zygadenus  venenosus).  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh, 
Hadleigh:  Zygadenus,  or  Death  Camas,  Bulletin  125,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1915,  Plate  V,  Fig.  2.) 


/OS 


/oo 


\ 


PIG.  18. — Curve  of  temperature  of  sheep  No.  291  fed  on  Death  Camas  (Zygadenus 
venenosus.  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Zygadenus, 
or  Death  Camas,  Bulletin  125,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915,  p.  26.) 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


attacks  of  dyspnoea  (Fig.  18).  The  toxic  dose  varies  according  to  the 
conditions  of  feeding.  In  drenched  animals,  it  may  be  put  at  about  one- 
half  a  pound  for  an  animal  weighing  a  hundred  pounds  and  in  fed  animals 


\  9° 

- 


PIG.  19. — Curve  of  respiration  of  sheep  No.  174  fed  on  Death  Camas,  Zygadenus 
venenosus.  The  sheep  was  drenched  at  12  o'clock  noon  and  died  at  11.15  P.M.  The 
respiratory  rate  rose  to  200  between  2  and  3  o'clock,  when  the  animal  had  one  of  the 
spasmodic  struggles  for  breath.  It  then  fell  to  g  and  remained  low,  with  comparatively 
slight  variations,  until  the  time  of  death.  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.  and 
Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Zygadenus,  or  Death  Camas,  Bulletin  125,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1915,  p.  27.) 

it  varies  from  1.6  pounds  to  5.6  pounds  (Fig.  19).  The  poisonous  principle 
is  an  alkaloid  or  alkaloids,  allied  to  veratrin  and  cevadin.  Sick  animals 
should  be  kept  quiet  as  if  this  is  done  there  are  chances  of  recovery.  No 
satisfactory  medical  remedy  has  been  discovered  for  camas  poisoning. 


MONOCOTYLEDONS    AS   POISONOUS    PLANTS  51 

Stagger -grass  (Chrosperma  (Amianthium)  tnusccdoxicum) . — This  is 
an  erect  smooth  herb  with  a  tunicated  bulb  and  numerous  long  blunt 
basal  leaves.  The  white  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  dense  terminal  raceme. 
The  fruit  is  a  capsule  filled  with  reddish-brown,  ovoid  seeds.  It  is  found  in 
dry,  sandy  woods  from  Long  Island  to  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  south 
to  Florida,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas,  flowering  from  May  to  July.  In 
March  1911,  reports  were  received  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  from  Wilmington,  North  Carolina  of  the  poisoning  of  cattle 
by  this  plant.  Feeding  experiments  conducted  by  the  Marshes  and  Claw- 
son  confirmed  the  general  opinion  of  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  fly- 
poison  plant. 

White  Hellebore  (Verairum  viride). — This  is  a  common  perennial  herb 
in  the  damp  alluvial  soil  along  streams  in  North  America,  ascending  to 
5000  feet  in  the  White  Mountains  and  other  eastern  ranges.  There  is  a 
Californian  species,  V.  californicum.  Its  stem  is  stout,  tall,  very  leafy 
with  broad  light  green  parallel-veined  leaves.  The  flowers  are  numerous 
greenish-yellow  in  a  branching  panicle.  It  arises  from  an  erect,  under- 
ground rootstock.  Cases  of  poisoning  are  known  in  man,  various  animals 
and  birds. 

Symptoms. — Animals  do  not  relish  the  plant,  as  it  is  acrid  and  burning 
in  the  fresh  condition,  but  young  animals  sometimes  eat  it  with  fatal  re- 
sults. The  seeds  have  been  eaten  by  chickens  with  a  fatal  termination. 
The  most  marked  symptoms  of  white  hellebore  poisoning  are  burning  in 
the  throat  and  oesophagus,  salivation,  defective  vision,  itching,  vomiting, 
diarrho3a,  severe  headache  and  death  by  paralysis  of  the  heart.  The 
number  of  poisonous  substances  found  in  this  plant  is  quite  large.  Vera- 
trin  C32Hi9NOn  has  an  alkaline  reaction  and  a  burning  taste,  producing 
violent  sneezing  and  dilatation  of  the  pupil .  It  has  been  recently  separated 
into  several  bases:  the  very  poisonous  cevadin  C32H49NO9,  vetratri- 
din  C37H53NOii  and  sabadillin  C34H53N08  besides  sabadin  C29H5iNO8, 
sabadinin  C27H45N08,  jervin  C26H37NO3,  rubijervin  C26H43NO2,  pseudo- 
jervin  C29H43NO7,  protoveratrin  C32H81NOn,  protoveratridin  C26H45 
NO8  and  the  bitter  glucoside  veratramarin.  Jervin  is  a  powerful  depres- 
sant of  the  heart  muscles  and  vasomotor  centers.  It  depresses  respira- 
tion and  death  occurs  from  asphyxiation. 

Treatment. — Treatment  should  consist  of  the  use  of  cardiac  and  respira- 
tory stimulants,  such  as  amyl  nitrate  (by  inhalation),  alcohol,  strychnin, 
and  atropin.  Tannic  acid  can  be  used  as  a  chemical  antidote;  opium  to  sub- 
due pain  and  demulcents  to  relieve  local  irritation  of  the  digestive  tract. 


52  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Lily  of  the  Valley  (Convallaria  majalis}. — The  lily  of  the  valley  is  a 
smooth,  perennial  herb  with  horizontal  rhizomes  from  which  arise  two  or 
three  oblong,  parallel-veined  leaves.  Later  in  May  to  June,  there  is 
found  a  short  scape  with  a  short  raceme  of  bell-shaped,  white  flowers 
having  six  included  stamens.  The  fruit  is  a  round,  red  berry  with  a  few 
seeds.  Apparently  sheep  and  goats  eat  the  leaves  with  impunity.  The 
Revue  Horticole  published  a  number  of  years  ago  an  account  of  the 
poisoning  of  a  flock  of  fowls  after  eating  the  decaying  flowers  of  this  plant. 
Only  the  parent  bird  survived  and  one  out  of  ten  chickens.  Two  glu- 
cosides  are  found  in  the  plant.  Convallamarin  C23H44Oi2  is  an  ex- 
tremely poisonous,  crystalline  compound  with  a  bitter  sweet  taste.  Its 
physiologic  action  on  the  heart  is  like  digitalis.  Convallarin  C34Hb2 
On  is  crystalline  with  sharp  taste  and  purgative  in  its  action.  The  action 
of  the  poisonous  principles  on  the  heart  is  infrequent  and  irregular. 
Death  occurs  from  paralysis. 

Meadow  Saffron  (Colchicum  autumnale). — The  autumn  crocus  is  found 
in  meadows  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  not  known  in  America 
outside  of  gardens.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are  poisonous  and  many  horses, 
cattle  and  pigs  have  been  killed  in  Europe  by  eating  it,  although  sheep 
and  goats  are  almost  immune.  •  Children  have  died  from  eating  its  seeds. 
The  toxic  principle  is  cumulative  in  its  action.  It  is  a  poisonous  alkaloid 
colchicin  C22H2oNO6  which  causes  after  small  but  not  fatal  doses 
loss  of  appetite,  suppression  of  rumination,  salivation,  light  colic,  diar- 
rhoea and  voiding  of  small  quantities  of  urine.  Blood  has  been  seen  in 
the  milk  of  poisoned  cows.  Fatal  quantities  cause  total  loss  of  appetite, 
stupefaction,  loss  of  consciousness,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  unsteady  gait, 
and  even  paralysis  of  limbs,  sweating,  severe  colic  and  bloody  diarrhoea, 
bloody  urine;  rapid,  small  imperceptible  pulse,  labored  breathing  and 
death  hi  one  to  three  days.  Recovery  is  very  slow,  if  it  takes  place. 

Red  Root  (Lachnanthes  (Gyrotheca)  tinctorid). — This  plant  occurs  in 
the  coastal,  fresh-water  marshes  and  cranberry  bogs  from  southeastern 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersey  to  Florida.  It  is  a  tall 
stout  herb  with  yellow  flowers  and  pink  rhizomes.  It  poisons  only  white 
pigs,  but  not  the  black  ones,  so  that  there  develops  a  preponderance  of 
black  pigs  over  white  ones  in  regions  where  the  plant  is  abundant.  Post- 
mortem examination  of  the  bones  of  white  pigs  reveals  the  curious  fact 
that  they  are  colored  a  reddish-pink. 

Lady  Slipper  Orchid  (Cypripedium  hirsutum). — This  species  may  be 
taken  as  illustrating  the  poisonous  activities  of  a  number  of  eastern  Ameri- 


MONOCOTYLEDONS   AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS  53 

can  species  of  Cypripedium.  It  is  found  in  woods  and  swamps  from  Nova 
Scotia,  Ontario  and  Georgia  west  to  Minnesota  and  Iowa.  The  glandular 
hairs  on  the  leaves,  stem  and  flower  parts  secrete  a  poisonous  oil  which 
produces  an  irritation  of  the  skin,  or  a  dermatitis.  Mac  Dougal,  who 
first  reported  such  poisonous  action,  experimented  personally  with  a 
mature  specimen  and  states  "a  slight  tingling  sensation  was  felt  at  the 
time,  and,  fourteen  hours  later  the  arm  was  greatly  swollen  from  the  shoul- 
der to  the  finger  tips.  The  portion  covered  by  the  plant  was  violently 
inflamed  and  covered  with  macules,  accompanied  by  the  usual  symptoms 
of  dermatitis  and  constitutional  disturbances."  Nestler  discovered  that 
the  secretion  of  these  hairs  was  a  fatty  acid  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
benzol.  No  specific  antidote  has  been  discovered. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

BLACK,  O.  F.  and  ALSBERG,  C.  L:  The  Determination  of  the  Deterioration  of  Maize, 

with  incidental  Reference  to  Pellagra.     Bulletin  199,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 

U.   S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   1910;   Contributions  to  the  Study  of  Maize 

Deterioration,  Bulletin  270,  do,  1913. 
BLANKINSHIP,  J.  W. :  The  Loco  and  some  other  Poisonous  Plants  in  Montana.     Bulletin 

45,  Montana  Experiment  Station,  June,  1903,  pages  91-93. 

HALL,  HARVEY  U.  and  GATES,  HARRY  S.:  Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  California.     Bull- 
etin  249,    College  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural   Experiment  Station,   Berkeley, 

California,  1915,  pages  225-228. 

LILY  OF  THE  VALLEY  POISONOUS  TO  FOWLS.     Gardeners'  Chronicle,  3d  Ser.,  iv,  37. 
LONG,  HAROLD  C.:  Plants  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.     Cambridge  at  the  University 

Press,  1917,  pages  78-84. 
MARSH,   C.   D.:  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  the  Range.     Bulletin  575,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agriculture,  1919,  with  colored  plates. 
MARSH,  C.  DWIGHT,  CLAWSON,  A.  B.  and  MARSH,  HADLEIGH:  Zygadenus  or  Death 

Camas.     Bulletin  125,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1915;  Stagger  Grass  (Chrosperma 

muscaltoxicuni)  as  a  Poisonous  Plant.     Bulletin  710,  1918. 
MOORE,  VERANUS  A.:  Cornstalk  Disease  (Toxaemia  maidis)  in  Cattle.     Bulletin  10, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  1896. 
NILES,  GEORGE  M.:  Pellagra  An  American  Problem.     Philadelphia,  W.  B.  Saunders 

Company,  1912. 

PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.     Part  2,  1911,  pages  333-395. 
PELLAGRA  DUE  TO  COLLOIDAL  SILICA  IN  FOOD.     Geographical  Review,  October,  1917, 

page  321. 

PKRKINS,  W.  B.:  Sorghum  Poisoning  of  Cattle.     Mississippi  Report,  1901,  page  35. 
SORGHUM  POISONING  (Sorghum  vulgare)     Qu.  Agr.  Journ.,  xiii;  59,  July,  1903;  98. 

Aug.,  1903,  473;  Review  Journ.  Roy.  Hort.  Sci.,  28,  711. 
VITAMINES.     The  Youth's  Companion,  June  10,  1918,  page  24. 


54  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

WILSON,   ALEXANDER    STEPHEN:   Further   Experiments   with  Lolium   temulentum. 
Gardeners'  Chronicle  &  Agricultural  Gazette,  1873,  1702-1703  (December  20). 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestion  to  Teacher. — Dried  specimens  with  flowers  should  be  kept  of  each  of 
the  plants  in  the  list  below  and  in  quantity  sufficient  to  supply  each  member  of  the 
class.  These  specimens  should  be  made  when  the  material  is  available,  one  set  of 
plants  should  be  mounted  conveniently  for  use  in  demonstration.  Darnel  with  grains, 
Death  Camas,  Stagger-grass,  White  Hellebore,  Lily  of  the  Valley,  Meadow  Saffron, 
Red  Root,  Lady  Slipper  Orchid.  As  many  of  these  listed  plants  should  be  distributed 
(usually  one  or  two  in  the  single  laboratory  hour),  as  can  be  described  conveniently. 
Selected  plants  above  will  be  found  in  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  America  and  in 
Europe  (Meadow  Saffron). 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  each  specimen  according  to  the  accompanying  outline,  or  to  the  outline 
with  maps  and  other  data  in  the  Students'  Herbarium  for  Descriptive  and  Geographical 
Purposes  published  by  Christopher  Sower  Company,  124  N.  i8th  Street,  Philadelphia, 
1 901.     European  and  western  American  botanists  can  use  the  species  corresponding 
to  those  in  the  above  list. 

Outline  for  Study  of  Plant 

Root. — Primary,  or  secondary,  kind  (fibrous,  fleshy,  etc.),  shape. 
Stem. — Dicotyledonous,  or  monocotyledonous,  size  (height,  girth,  etc.),  kind,  shape, 

peculiarities. 
Leaf. — Phyllotaxy,  stipulate,  or  exstipulate,  petiolate,  or  sessile,  simple  or  compound, 

general  shape,  venation,  margin,  apex,  base,  etc. 
Flower. — Inflorescence,  perfect,  or   imperfect,  complete,  or    incomplete,  regular,  or 

irregular,  symmetrical,  or  unsymmetrical,  bracteate,  or  ebracteate,  bracts  (kind, 

etc..) 
Calyx. — Aposepalous,  or    gamosepalous,    insertion,    aestivation,  number   of   sepals, 

shapes,  etc. 
Corolla. — Apopetalous,   or  gamopetalous,   insertion,   aestivation,   number  of  petals, 

shapes,  color,  etc. 

Stamens. — Insertion,  relation  to  each  other,  relation  to  other  parts,  number. 
Pistil. — Apocarpous,  or  syncarpous,  number  of  carpels,  ovary  superior,  or  inferior, 

number  of  cells,  placentation. 
Fruit—  Simple,  etc. 
Seeds. — Albuminous,  or  exalbuminous. 

2.  Distribute  stained  sections  of  darnel  fruit  in  oil  of  cloves,  or  xylol,  for  the  study 
of  the  fungus  symbiotic  in  the  grain  of  the  plant. 

3.  Distribute  for  permanent  mounting  sections  of  the  stem  and  of  the  leaves  of  the 
lady  slipper  orchid  to  show  position  and  structure  of  the  glandular  hairs  of  the  epi- 
dermal surface. 


CHAPTER  6 
DICOTYLEDONS  AS  POISONOUS  PLANTS 

The  poisonous  plants  dealt  with  in  the  next  four  chapters  are  dicoty- 
ledons. Dicotyledons  are  plants  with  permanent  primary  root,  which 
produces  secondary,  lateral  roots.  The  sap  bundles  are  arranged  collater- 
ally with  pith  in  the  center  surrounded  with  a  cylinder  of  xylem, 
cambium,  bast  (hard  and  soft),  cortex  and  bark.  The  principal  veins 
of  the  leaves  are  arranged  to  form  a  net,  or  reticulum.  The  floral  sym- 
metry is  dimerous,  trimerous,  or  pentamerous.  The  embryo  has  two 
seed  leaves,  or  cotyledons.  A  careful  selection  has  been  made  of  those 
known  to  be  poisonous  to  stock.  There  are  in  Europe  three  hundred  and 
fifty  plants  which  are  injurious  to  man  and  the  domestic  animals.  There 
are  probably  as  many  in  America,  but  the  poisonous  effect  of  many  have 
not  been  demonstrated.  Statistics  in  regard  to  poisonous  plants  are 
lacking,  owing  to  ignorance  of  the  subject  and  it  is,  therefore,  impossible 
to  give  an  estimate  as  to  the  amount  of  damage  done  by  these  plants. 

There  are  probably  more  cases  of  poisoning  on  the  great  stock  ranges 
than-  in  the  farming  regions,  because  the  conditions  on  the  great  stock 
ranges  are  different.  The  stock  on  the  great  ranges  do  not  have  invariably 
a  sufficient  amount  of  food,  and  this  probably  leads  to  the  use  of  plants 
which  with  a  more  abundant  supply  would  be  avoided.  New  sheep, 
which  are  totally  unfamiliar  with  the  range  plants,  are  brought  in  from 
farms  and  naturally  fail  to  discriminate  the  poisonous  from  the  harmless 
food  plants.  Some  believe  that  alkali  waters,  when  used  by  stock  for 
drinking  purposes,  serve  as  a  substitute  for  salt,  and  induce  an  unnatural 
appetite  in  the  stock,  which  results  in  their  use  of  the  injurious  plant 
species  of  the  range  for  food.  We  are  thus  introduced  to  the  species  of 
plants  which  have  been  chosen  to  represent  the  great  dicotyledonous  class. 

Poke  or  Garget  (Phytolacca  decandra). — The  crowberry,  chongras 
or  ink  plant  is  a  smooth  tall  perennial  growing  5  to  8  feet  tall  with  a 
thick  root,  purplish  stems,  alternate  leaves  and  elongated  racemes  of 
greenish-white  flowers  followed  by  purple-black  berries,  which  yield 

55 


50  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

juice  used  as  a  substitute  for  red  ink  (Fig.  20) .  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the 
United  States,  extending  from  Maine  and  northern  Illinois  to  Florida 
westward  to  Texas,  eastern  Kansas  and  southern  Minnesota.  The  young 
fresh  shoots  as  they  appear  above  the  ground  are  used  for  greens, 
but  the  root  should  be  rejected  as  it  is  bitter  and  poisonous  if  taken  in 
large  amount.  The  water  in  which  the  plant  is  boiled  should  be  thrown 
away,  as  it  contains  the  poisonous  substance. 


FIG.  20. — Tall  plant  of  Poke  (Phytolacca  decandra)  in  abandoned  manure  pit  in  front 
of  stable  at  Belmar,  N.  J.,  August  23,  1919.  The  ripe  fruits  may  be  seen  on  close 
inspection. 

Action  and  Symptoms. — Poke  is  a  violent,  but  slow  acting  emetic, 
vomiting  beginning  after  about  two  hours  have  elapsed  from  the  ingestion 
of  the  food.  It  affects  the  muscles  and  nerves  Causing  retching,  spasms, 
severe  purging  and  occasionally  convulsions.  Accidental  cases  of  poison- 
ing have  occurred  where  the  root  has  been  mistaken  for  parsnip  and  horse- 
radish. A  few  fatal  cases  of  the  poisoning  of  children  have  followed  the 
eating  of  the  juicy  berries. 

|*  Active  Principal. — The  active  principal  of  poke  is  an  amorphous,  bitter 
and  acid  substance  very  similar  to  if  not  identical  with  saponin.  The 
alkaloid^  phytolaccin  occurs  in  small  amount.  Nozi  reports  a  toxic  sub- 


DICOTYLEDONS   AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS 


57 


stance  phytolaccotoxin  (C24H3oO8).     The  juice  of  the  berry  is  a  delicate 
test  for  acids,  when  lime  water  is  added  to  it. 

Corn  Cockle.  —  (Agrostemma  githagd).  —  This  is  an  erect  annual  herb 
growing  as  tall  as  wheat  in  the  wheat  field.     It  is  densely  pubescent  with 
whitish,     appressed      hairs.     Its 
leaves  are  opposite,  linear-lanceo- 
late and  acute  (Fig.  21). 

Symptoms.  —  If  the  seeds  (Fig. 
216)  are  ground  with  wheat,  they 
impart  to  baker's  flour  a  bitter 
taste  and  poisonous  properties.. 
Fatal  results  have  followed  the 
use  of  bread  containing  ground 
corncockle  seeds.  A  few  years 
ago  a  number  of  horses  died  in  a 
stable  connected  with  one  of  the 
larger  Philadelphia  breweries  by 
eating  oats  that  had  come  from 
the  bottom  of  the  grain  bin.  No 
deleterious  substance  was  found 
in  the  sample  of  oats  submitted 
to  the  writer  for  examination  ex- 
cept a  large  number  of  corncockle 
seeds  and  this  indirect  evidence 
points  to  these  seeds  as  respon- 
sible for  the  death  of  the  animals 
and  a  report  was  made  to  the 
owner  of  the  horses  accordingly. 
It  is  known  that  the  symptoms 

of  poisoning  in  horses  is  yawning, 

heavy  colic,  stamping  and  evacua- 

tion   of  rather  soft   feCCS.   If 

larger  quantities  are  eaten  there 

is    salivation,    frequent   yawning 

and  turning  of  the  head  with  colic,  pale  mucus,  hurried  and  weak  pulse, 

rise  in  temperature  and  accelerated  respiration.     There  are  muscular 

tremors  followed  by  rigidity  and  the  feces  are  diarrhceic  and  fetid.     The 

horse  lies  down.     It  gets  up  painfully.     These  symptoms  are  succeeded 


PIG.  21.  —  Corncockle   (Lychnis   gilhago). 


produced  in  Pammel,  L.  H.:    Some  Weeds  of 


58  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

by  coma  and  death  without  convulsions.  In  cattle  the  symptoms 
observed  one  hour  after  eating  are  grinding  of  the  teeth,  restlessness 
and  abundant  flow  of  the  saliva  with  colic  and  coughing,  a  state  lasting 
five  to  eight  hours  followed  by  coma,  fetid  diarrhoea,  rapid  respiration 
and  pulse,  a  gradual  loss  of  motor  and  sense  powers  and  a  progressive 
decline  of  the  temperature.  In  twenty-four  hours  the  cattle  are  dead. 
Pigs  are  also  susceptible.  Young  pigs  especially  so.1  A  chronic  form  of 
the  disease  is  known  as  githagism. 

Poisonous  Principles. — The  poisonous  principle  in  cockle  seeds  is  a 
glucoside  known  under  different  names  as  githagin,  saponin,  agrostemin, 
sapotoxin,  smilacin  (CnHseOio).  Seeds  contain  up  to  6.56  per  cent,  of  this 
principle  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  froths  like  soap  when  shaken  up. 

Aconite  (AconUum  columbianum) . — This  is  the  only  native  American 
species  which  may  be  considered  dangerous  like  the  European  plant 
AconUum  Napellus,  as  the  other  three  American  species  are  very  local  and 
not  very  poisonous.  The  western  American  aconite,  or  monkshood, 
grows  at  an  altitude  of  5,000  to  10,000  feet  in  low  grounds  near  brooks 
and  springs  from  Montana,  Wyoming  and  Colorado  to  the  sierras. 

Symptoms. — Prof.  V.  K.  Chestnut  says  of  this  western  species:  "All 
of  the  parts  are  poisonous,  but  the  seeds  and  roots  are  the  most  dangerous. 
The  active  principle  is  not  well  known,  but  chemical  and  physiologic 
experiments  point  to  the  existence  of  one  or  more  alkaloids  which  resemble 
aconitin.  The  effect  of  the  poison  is  characteristic.  There  is  first  a 
tingling  sensation  on  the  end  of  the  tongue  which  gives  rise  shortly  to  a 
burning  sensation,  and  is  rapidly  followed  by  a  very  pronounced  sense  of 
constriction  in  the  throat.  The  choking  thus  produced  is  made  the  more 
alarming  by  the  retarding  effect  which  the  poison  has  upon  the  respiration. 
The  tingling  and  prickling  over  the  entire  body  is  also  characteristic. 
Besides  these  symptoms  there  are  generally  severe  headache,  abdominal 
pains,  confused  vision,  vomiting  and  diarrhoea.  Delirium  is  usually 
absent.  Death  ensues  from  a  stoppage  of  the  respiration  in  from  one  to 
eight  hours." 

Nature  of  Poisons. — Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs  have  been  poisoned  in 
Europe  from  eating  AconUum  Napellus.  Cows  have  died  in  Victoria. 
Linnaeus  states  that  it  is  fatal  to  cows  and  goats  when  eaten  fresh,  but 

1  The  writer  had  some  Seeds  sent  to  him  on  August  23,  1916,  from  Dr.  \\T.  C.  Reeder 
of  Rising  Sun,  Md.,  which  had  been  taken  from  the  "chop"'  feed  of  hogs,  that  had 
been  poisoned  as  a  result  and  were  vomiting  and  showing  other  signs  of  debility. 


DICOTYLEDONS  AS  POISONOUS  PLANTS  59 

in  the  dried  state  it  is  nontoxic  to  horses.  All  parts  of  the  European 
plant  are  poisonous,  but  the  root  is  especially  so,  and  next  the  seeds  and 
the  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  toxicity  varies  with  age  and  climate,  but 
slightly  active  when  young.  It  is  most  active  just  before  the  flowers  develop. 
The  cultivated  plant  is  less  poisonous  than  the  wild,  and  the  poison  is 
partly  dissipated  upon  drying.  The  plant  contains  the  toxic  alkaloid 
aconitin  (Ca^rNOu)  and  also  aconin  (C^EUiNOg).  Aconite  is  an 
extremely  valuable  drug  being  used  when  taken  internally  as  a  depres- 
sant slowing  the  pulse  and  lowering  the  blood  pressure.  In  over  doses  it 
produces  death  by  respiratory  paralysis. 

Buttercup  (Ranunculus  sp.). — The  hands  of  the  writer  were  poisoned 
by  removing  Ranunculus  bulbosus  from  70  per  cent,  alcohol  in  which  the 
tops  with  flowers  had  been  preserved  for  class  study.  The  inflammation 
produced  on  the, skin  was  a  typical  dermatitis  resembling  that  caused  by 
the  poison  ivy,  Rhus  radicans.  A  number  of  species"  are  known  to  be 
poisonous  when  fresh,  but  the  poisonous  principle  is  volatile  and  is  dissi- 
pated on  drying  the  plants,  so  that  hay  with  included  buttercups  is  non- 
poisonous  to  stock,  if  fully  dried.  Boiling  the  plants  also  renders  them 
inocuous.  The  celery-leaved  buttercup  Ranunculus  sceleratus,  called  by 
the  French  Mortaux  V aches  and  Herbe  sardonique,  is  considered  to  be  the 
most  toxic  species,  and  the  toxicity  seems  to  increase  up  to  the  time  of 
flowering  after  which  it  decreases.  The  bulbous  buttercup  seems  to  vary 
in  its  toxic  properties  having  poisonous  flowers,  while  the  bulb-like  rhiz- 
ome becomes  most  harmful  in  autumn  and  winter.  Ranunculus  Ficaria, 
the  lesser  celandine,  has  been  the  cause  of  the  poisoning  of  three  heifers, 
while  cattle  have  been  poisoned  frequently  by  the  tall  buttercup,  R.  acris. 

Poisons. — Most  of  the  species  contain  an  acrid  and  bitter  juice  prob- 
ably identical  with  anemonin,  which  has  been  obtained  along  with  ane- 
monic  acid  from  the  acrid  crowfoot,  R.  acris.  Some  toxicologists  assert 
that  the  poisonous  species  contain  the  two  alkaloids  aconitin  and  delphinin. 

Symptoms. — The  buttercups  are  acrid,  burning  and  narcotic  causing 
irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the  intestinal  tract  becoming  inflamed. 
According  to  Cornevin,  the  celery-leaved  buttercup  induces  colic,  gastro- 
enteritis, diarrhoea  with  black  foul-smelling  feces,  vomiting  in  animals 
which  can  do  it,  falling-off  in  milk  yield  in  cows,  nervous  state,  pulse 
reduction  and  stertorous  respiration,  pupils  dilated,  feebleness,  difficult 
mastication,  spasmodic  movements  of  the  ears,  lips,  etc.,  convulsions, 
eyeballs  sunken.  Death  follows  the  convulsions  in  six  to  twelve  hours. 


6o 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL    BOTANY 


Larkspurs  (Delphinium  Ajacis,  D.  bicolor,  D.  camporum,  D.  Geyeri, 
G.  glaucum  (Fig.  22),  D.  Menziesii,  D,  Nelsoni,  D.  scopulorum,  D.  tricorne 
D.  trolliifolium)  are  responsible  for  cases  of  poisoning.  The  principle 
usually  increases  its  virulence  with  age.  Pammel  in  his  "Manual  of 
Poisonous  Plants"  gives  a  circumstantial  account  of  each  of  the  principal 
species  of  larkspurs,  and  the  feeding  experiments  which  have  been  tried 
with  each  plant.  With  the  exception  of  the  European,  Delphinium  Ajacis, 


FIG.  22. — Tall  mountain  larkspur  (Delphinium  glaucum).  One-half  natural  size- 
(After  Hall,  Harvey  M.,  and  Gales,  Harry  S.,  Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  California.  Bull- 
249,  University  of  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1915,  p.  232.) 

all  the  other  species  mentioned  above  are  western  American  (Fig.  23),  a 
few  extending  into  the  eastern  United  States.  As  the  cattle  ranges  of 
western  America,  as  in  California,  include  habitats  such  as  moist  meadows, 
gulches,  borders  of  springs,  or  ponds,  open  hillsides,  sparsely  forested 
areas  and  the  open  steppes, "we  find  the  species  varying  with  the  habitat 
•conditions,  and  with  this  we  find  that  next  to  the  loco  weed,  the  larkspurs 
are  the  most  harmful  and  poisonous  of  the  plants  found  on  the  open 
ranges  (Fig.  24). 


DICOTYLEDONS   AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS 


61 


Poisonous  Principles. — Not  all  of  the  species  have  been  studied 
for  their  poisonous  constituents,  but  there  have  been  found  in  D.  consolida 
and  D.  staphisagria  the  alkaloids  delphinin  C22H35O6N  extremely  poi- 
sonous and  with  a  bitter  taste;  delphisin  C^HaaNOs  poisonous;  delp- 
hinoidin  C42H68N2O7  poisonous  and  staphisagrin.  Delphhiin  has  a 


FIG.  23. — Pass  Creek  Park,  Colo.,  with  low  larkspur  (Delphinium  Menziesif)  in 
blossom.  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Larkspur 
Poisoning  of  Live  Stock,  Bulletin  3657,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  September  8,  1916, 
Plate  III.) 

local  irritative  action.  Its  systemic  action  is  mainly  paralytic  on  the 
heart  and  respiration  and  resembles  that  of  aconitin  in  many  respects. 
Post  mortem  examination  in  poisoning  by  mouth  with  this  body  showed 
marked  reddening  of  the  stomach.  Recently  in  a  number  of  Van  Praag's 
experiments  with  feeding  solutions  of  Delphinium  a  marked  increase  in 
urinary  secretion  was  noted. 


62  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Recently  also  Delphinium  bicolor,  D.  Menziesii,  and  D.  Nelsonii 
have  been  found  to  yield  an  alkaloid,  delphocurarin,  which  has  been  in- 
troduced as  a  substitute  for  curare  in  vivisection  work,  and  this  introduc- 
tion is  indorsed  by  Lohmann's  work.  Methyl  delphinin  is  said  also  to 
possess  this  curare-like  action. 

Symptoms. — Froggatt  states  that  the  common  garden  larkspur  will 
kill  locusts  and  advises  planting  them  in  masses  around  gardens  as  a  pro- 


FIG.  24. — Sheep  feeding  upon  larkspur  (Delphinium  Menziesii).  (After  Marsh, 
C.  Dwighl,  Clawson,  A.  B.  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Larkspur  Poisoning  of  Livestock.  Bulle- 
tin 365.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  September  8,  1916.  Plate  XV,  Fig.  i.) 

tective  measure  against  insects  as  the  locusts  and  the  grasshopper.     Other 
species  kill  maggots  and  ticks. 

The  animals  affected  show  symptoms  similar  to  those  produced  by 
overdoses  of  aconite.  There  is  general  stiffness  and  irregularity  of  gait 
as  the  first  symptoms.  The  hind  legs  show  pronounced  straddling  (Fig. 
25)  and  these  actions  become  more  pronounced  until  locomotion  becomes 
difficult  or  impossible,  and  the  animal  finally  falls  to  the  ground,  making 
attempts  to  get  upon  its  feet,  the  movements  being  more  and  more  irregu- 


DICOTYLEDONS   AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS 


lar  and  incoordinated  (Fig.  26).     The  skin  is  sensitive   to  the   touch 
and  the  muscles  of  the  legs  and  sides  of  the  body  begin  to  quiver  spasmod- 


FIG.  25. — Case  117,  August  15,  re- 
maining on  its  feet  with  great  difficulty. 
Animal  poisoned  by  eating  larkspur. 
(After  Marsh,  C.  D-wight,  Clawson,  A.  B., 
and  Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Larkspur  Poisoning 
of  Live  Stock.  Bulletin  365,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  September  8,  1916, 
Plate  X,  Fig.  3.) 


FIG.  26. — Case  117, 'August  15,  in 
the  act  of  backing  in  the  manner  charac- 
teristic of  larkspur  poisoning.  Animal 
poisoned  by  eating  larkspur.  (After 
Marsh,  'C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.  and 
Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Larkspur  Poisoning  of 
Live  Stock.  Bulletin  365,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  September  8,  1916, 
Plate  X,  Fig.  4.) 


FIG.  27. — Case  78,  when  feeling  the  worst.  Horse  poisoned  by  eating  larkspur. 
(After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh:  Larkspur  Poisoning  of 
Live  Stock.  Bulletin  365,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  September  8, 1916,  Plate  XIV, 
Fig.  3-) 

ically  and  this  continues  for  several  hours.  The  special  senses  seem  to  be 
seldom  impaired,  hearing  and  sight  are  both  normal.  There  is  slight 
salivation.  Violent  convulsions  follow  the  above  premonitory  symptoms 


64  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

the  animal  dying  in  one  of  the  fits.  The  digestive  action  appears  normal. 
There  is  a  slight  lowering  of  the  temperature,  the  pulse  becomes  frequent 
and  the  respiration  rapid  and  shallow.  The  nervous  symptoms  are 
simply  those  of  excitement  and  the  appetite  is  fair.  Cattle  and  horses 
are  the  animals  usually  killed  by  eating  these  plants  (Fig.  27).  Sheep  are 
rarely  injured. 

Treatment. — The  California  Experiment  Station  recommends  the 
following  medicine  for  subcutaneous  injection  by  a  hypodermic  syringe. 

Physostigmin  salicylate,  one  grain. 

Pilocarpin  hydrochloride,  two  grains. 

Strychnin  sulfate,  one-half  grain. 

These  quantities  are  for  an  animal  weighing  five  hundred  or  six  hundred 
pounds.  This  remedy  relieves  constipation  and  stimulates  respiration. 
The  dose  should  not  be  repeated.  Poisoned  animals  should  be  kept  quiet 
with  the  head  kept  higher  than  the  other  parts.  Grubbing  out  the  plants 
has  been  found  to  be  the  best  method  of  preventing  loss  of  cattle  from 
larkspur  poisoning. 

Marsh  Marigold  (Caltha  palustris).  This  stout,  smooth  herb  is  a 
native  of  Europe  and  in  America  it  is  found  in  swamps  and  meadows 
from  Newfoundland  to  South  Carolina  and  Nebraska,  flowering  from  Apiil 
to  June.  The  reports  about  the  plant  are  most  contradictory.  In  some 
places,  the  flower  buds  are  pickled,  eaten  and  used  fresh  as  a  pot  herb. 
Stebler  and  Schroeter  say  that  it  is  poisonous  in  a  green  state,  and  Rusby 
states  that  fed  with  hay,  it  produces  diarrhoea  and  stoppage  of  the  flow  of 
milk.  Rafinesque  asserts  that  cattle  die  of  the  inflammation  of  the  stom- 
ach, while  it  causes  hematuria,  according  to  Freidberger  and  Frohner. 

May-apple  (Podophyllum  peltatum.} — This  perennial  herb  has  a 
long  creeping  rootstock  from  which  the  stem  with  2  peltatel  eaves  arises 
bearing  a  single,  creamy-white  flower  with  6  unequal  sepals,  6-9 
petals,  12-18  stamens  and  a  single-celled  ovary. 

Symptoms. — The  Indians  were  acquainted  with  its  medicinal  virtues 
and  the  writer  on  inquiring  the  use  of  the  plant  of  an  old  negro  herb  doctor, 
who  was  gathering  the  rhizomes  in  the  woods  near  Philadelphia,  replied, 
"boss,  it  is  good  for  the  bowels."  The  old  colored  man  recognized  its 
purgative  qualities  in  small  doses.  Dr.  Winslow  says:  "The  action  is  ex- 
erted mainly  on  the  duodenum,  which  is  intensely  inflamed  and  even 
ulcerated  in  poisoning.  Podophyllin  directly  increases  the  secretion 
of  the  bile  in  small  doses,  while  purgative  quantities  hasten  its  excretion 


DICOTYLEDONS    AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS  65 

by  stimulation  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  gall  bladder  (except  in 
the  horse,  and  small  intestines).  It  is  probable  that  the  intestinal 
secretions  are  somewhat  augmented.  The  fecal  movements  after 
medicinal  doses  of  podophyllin  are  liquid,  often  stained  with  bile,  and 
may  be  accompanied  by  some  nausea  and  griping."  Eaten  by  cows, 
while  pasturing  in  open  woodlands,  it  imparts  to  the  milk  of  such 
animals  purgative  properties,  which  may  be  dangerous  to  infants  fed 
upon  such  inilk  contained  in  the  bottle.  Cases  of  poisoning  have  been 
reported  occasionally.  In  the  Philadelphia  Medical  and  Surgical 
Reports  (XIX:  308),  a  fatal  case  is  recorded  in  which  the  evidence 
is  perfectly  clear  that  poisoning  resulted  from  continual  large  doses 
administered  by  an  ignorant  and  careless  physician.  The  poisonous 
symptoms  were  all  referable  to  the  intestines  as  enteritis.  Inhalation  of 
the  dust  of  the  dried  rhizome  and  administration  of  podophyllin  in  }/±  to 
3^  grain  doses  cause  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  soreness  and  pustulation  of 
the  nose;  salivation  and  white-coated  tongue;  extreme  nausea,  followed  by 
vomiting;  severe  pains  in  the  transverse  colon  and  abdomen,  followed  by 
a  call  to  stool;  thin,  offensive,  copious  stools;  weak  pulse,  prostration, 
drowsiness,  and  cold  extremities." 

Active  Properties. — The  active  properties  of  the  plant  appear  to  reside 
in  the  resinous  substance  podophyllin.  This  contains  podophyllotoxin 
CuHi4O2  4-  2H2O  and  picropodophyllin,  CnH8O2  +  H2O  with  a  bitter 
taste,  berberin  C2oHi7NO4  (feebly  toxic  to  many)  and  saponin. 

Celandine  (Chelidonium  majus). — The  celandine  is  a  member  of  the 
poppy  family  (PAPAVERACE.E)  introduced  from  Europe  into  America 
and  in  some  localities  thoroughly  naturalized.  Its  leaves  are  thin  once 
to  twice  pinnatifid  and  glaucous  beneath.  When  the  rootstock,  stem  and 
leaves  are  bruised,  a  yellow  juice  or  later  exudes.  The  flowers  are  yellow 
with  two  sepals,  four  petals  and  numerous  stamens.  The  ovary  is 
superior,  one-celled  with  two  parietal  placentae.  It  has  long  been  used 
as  a  drug  plant  having  emetic  and  purgative  properties  and  is  a  danger- 
ous poison.  There  are  no  cases  on  record  of  domestic  animals  being  killed 
by  eating  it,  as  it  has  an  unpleasant  odor. 

Properties. — The  plant  contains  a  bitter  alkaloid  chelidonin  (C2oHi9NO6 
+  H2o)  and  an  additional  poisonous  alkaloid  chelerythrin  (C-uHnNO^ 
related  to  sanguinarin  and  protopin  (C20Hi7NO5).  Cornevin  states  that 
the  poison  is  not  removed  by  drying  the  plant,  but  Pott  (1907)  believes 
that  it  becomes  harmless  to  animals  on  desiccation. 


66  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

The  plant  is  acrid,  irritant  and  narcotic,  emetic  and  purgative,  Chel- 
erythrin  causes  violent  sneezing,  if  inhaled,  and  causes  vomiting  if  taken 
internally. 

Poppies  (Papaver  spp.}. — Two  old  world  plants  of  this  genus  the  corn 
poppy  (Papaver  Rhoeas)  and  the  long  smooth  fruited  poppy  (Papaver 
dubium)  are  of  sufficient  interest  to  be  included  in  our  list  of  poisonous 
plants,  especially  as  their  relationship  to  the  opium  poppy  (Papaver 
somniferum)  enables  us  to  refer  to  this  perhaps  the  most  important  plant 
of  a  medicinal  kind,  the  source  of  a  useful  drug,  which  properly  controlled 
is  beneficial,  but  if  improperly  used  is  the  cause  of  more  misery  than  any 
other  drug  employed  by  mankind. 

General  Considerations. — Poisoning  by  the  above  mentioned  poppies 
is  not  common,  but  the  corn  poppy  has  been  known  to  poison  animal0 
when  mixed  with  green  fodder,  or  by  the  ingestion  of  seeds  and  capsules 
with  waste  materials  taken  in  with  the  food.  Ordinarily  stock  refuse 
to  eat  the  plants,  because  they  have  an  unpleasant  odor  and  taste.  Horses, 
cattle  and  pigs  have  been  poisoned  by  eating  Papaver  dubium. 

The  drug  acts  more  powerfully  upon  man  than  upon  the  lower  animals, 
especially  ruminants,  who  are  comparatively  insusceptible. 

Symptoms. — With  regard  to  the  symptoms  produced  in  animals, 
Dr.  Winslow  says:  "Ounce  doses  of  the  drug  cause,  in  cattle,  restlessness, 
excitement,  hoarse  bellowing,  dry  mouth,  nausea,  indigestion  and  tym- 
panites. Sheep  are  affected  much  in  the  same  manner.  One  to  two 
drachms  of  morphin  have  led  to  fatality  in  cattle.  Fifteen  to  thirty 
grains  of  the  alkaloid  comprise  a  lethal  dose  for  sheep.  Swine  are  various- 
ly influenced,  sometimes  excited,  sometimes  dull  and  drowsy."  With 
horses  it  sometimes  causes  drowsiness  at  other  times  has  no  visible  effect. 
Horses  have  recovered  from  an  ounce  of  opium,  but  two  and  one  half 
ounces  of  the  drug  and  one  hundred  grains  of  morphin.  have  proved  fatal. 
Cornevin  describes  the  symptoms  in  cattle  as  excitement,  pawing  of 
the  soil  or  litter,  increased  respiration  and  more  rapid  pulse,  followed  by 
stoppage  of  digestion  sometimes  with  a  swelling  of  the  eyelids  and  coma. 
Cattle  move  about  with  an  unsteady  gait.  Finally  the  animals  fall,  and 
if  poisoned  fatally,  it  remains  stretched  on  the  ground  respiration  becomes 
slower,  the  temperature  falls,  with  convulsions  and  death  by  asphyxia. 
Miiller  notes  wildness  of  look,  dilatation  of  pupil  convulsions,  coma  and 
symptoms  of  depression.  There  is  bloating,  constipation,  bloody  diar- 
rhoea (at  times)  and  salivation.  Death  is  rare. 


DICOTYLEDONS   AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS  67 

Nature  of  Poisons. — The  opium  poppy  contains  a  long  list  of  alkaloids 
enumerated  by  Fliickiger  and  Hanbury.  The  most  important  of  the  alka- 
loids is  morphin  (CnH^NOs  +  H2O)  which  in  the  pure  state  is  a  colorless 
or  white  shining,  odorless  substance  with  a  bitter  taste.  Codein,  also  of 
considerable  importance  is  a  nearly  transparent  odorless  substance  with 
a  faintly  bitter  taste  and  narcotin  is  also  present. 

Wild  Black  Cherry  (Prunus  serotind). — This  is  a  medium  sized  forest 
tree  found  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  and  Ohio  River  states  very  commonly. 
Less  commonly  in  southern  New  England  and  Gulf  states  and  westward 
from  Illinios,  South  Dakota,  eastern  Nebraska  and  Arkansas.  The 
leaves  are  alternate  and  dark  green.  The  white  flowers,  which  appear  in 
April  and  May,  are  produced  in  racemes,  followed  in  the  fall  by  the  shining- 
black,  edible  fruit,  suggesting  a  small  bunch  of  grapes. 

Nature  of  Poisoning. — Poisoning  is  frequently  caused  in  cattle  by 
eating  the  wilted  leaves  from  branches,  which  have  been  accidently 
broken  off  from  the  tree.  A  case  of  poisoning  in  horses  on  a  stock  farm 
at  Chestnut  Hill,  Pa.,  was  called  to  the  attention  of  the  writer,  where  the 
animals  in  passing  from  the  paddock,  where  they  had  been  feeding,  to  the 
stable  had  browsed  upon  the  leaves  from  several  branches  that  had  been 
broken  down  by  the  passing  of  a  wagon  loaded  with  hay.  The  prominent 
symptoms  observed  in  cattle  are  labored  breathing,  diminished  pulse, 
numbness,  protruding  eyeballs,  convulsions,  and  death  from  paralysis 
of  the  lungs.  Sometimes  there  is  frothing  at  the  mouth  and  nearly  always 
a  perceptible  odor  of  prussic,  or  hydrocyanic,  acid  on  the  breath. 

Active  Principles. — The  fresh  parts  of  the  plant,  including  the  leaves,  are 
nonpoisonous,  but  contain  a  gluccside  called  amygdalin  (C2oH27NOn) 
when  the  leaves  are  partially  withered  this  glucoside  is  acted  upon  by  a 
ferment  known  as  emulsin,  and  by  a  complex  chemical  change,  the  amyg- 
dalin is  converted  into  the  poisonous  prussic,  or  hydrocyanic  acid  (HCN) 
with  the  formation  of  grape  sugar  and  benzaldehyde  (bitter  almond  oil). 
It  is  the  formation  of  the  hydrocyanic  acid,  which  causes  the  poisoning, 
and  if  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  dried  the  prussic  acid,  being  volatile,  is 
dissipated,  and  they  become  harmless. 

Other  Poisonous  Species  of  Prunus. — Several  other  species  of  the 
genus  Prunus  similarly  become  poisonous.  Among  them  are  the  cherry 
laurel  (Prunus  laurocerasus)  of  Europe,  wild  red  cherry  (Prunus  pennsyl- 
vanica),  found  in  rocky  woods  from  Newfoundland  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains to  Georgia,  and  Prunus  demissa  found  on  river  banks  from  British 


68  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Columbia  to  Idaho  and  California,  also  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota. 
Many  cases  of  poisoning  have  been  recorded  from  persons  eating  the  seeds 
of  bittei  almonds  and  peaches. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ALDOUS,  A.  E.:  Eradicating  Tall  Larkspur  on  Cattle  Ranges  in  the  National  Forests. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  826,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  August,  1917. 

ANON.  :  Poisoning  of  Cattle  by  Acorns.  Gardeners'  Chronicle  &  Agricultural  Gazette, 
1870,  482  (September  5). 

ANON:  Uses  and  Distribution  of  the  Pokeberry  (Phytolacca  decandra).  The  Garden 
VI,  508-509,  Nov.  28,  1874. 

CHESTNUT,  V.  K.:  Principal  Poisonous  Plants  of  the  United  States.  Bulletin  20, 
Division  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1898,  pages  21-27;  Pre- 
liminary Catalogue  of  Plants  Poisonous  to  Stock.  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  1898,  pages  398-403;  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants  of  the  United 
States.  Farmers'  Bulletin  86,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  pages  9-14; 
Some  Poisonous  Plants  of  the  Northern  Stock  Ranges.  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1900;  314-318. 

CHESTNUT,  V.  K.  and  WILCOX,  E.  V.:  Stock-poisoning  Plants  of  Montana.  Bulletin 
26,  Division  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1901,  pages  65-80. 

CRAWFORD,  ALBERT  C.:  The  Larkspurs  as  Poisonous  Plants.  Bulletin  in,  Part  i, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1907. 

HALL,  HARVEY  M.  and  GATES,  HARRY  S. :  Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  California.  Bull- 
etin 249,  College  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley, 
California,  1915,  pages  229-232! 

HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W.:  Ranunculus  acris,  An  Additional  Poisonous  Plant.  Bo- 
tanical Gazette,  19,  159;  Garden  and  Forest,  7,  170. 

LONG,  HAROLD  C.:  Plants  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.  Cambridge  at  the  University 
Press,  1917,  pages  9-21,  etc. 

MARSH,  C.  D.:  Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  the  Range.  Bulletin  575,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  1919  with  colored  plates. 

MARSH,  C.  D.,  CLAWSON,  A.  B.  and  MARSH,  H.:  Larkspur  Poisoning  of  Live  Stock. 
Bulletin  365,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Sept.  8,  1916. 

MARSH,  C.  D.,  CLAWSON,  A.  B.,  MARSH,  H.:  Larkspur  or  Poison  Weed.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  988,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1918. 

PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants,  Part  II,  1911,  pages  covering  description 
of  the  above  mentioned  plants. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

I.  The  students  with  the  outline  of  plant  description  before  them  should  describe 
fresh,  or  dried,  specimens  of  the  poke,  corncockle,  aconite,  butter  cup,  marsh  marigold, 
larkspur,  mayapple,  columbine,  poppy  and  wild  black  cherry.  Flowers  of  these  plants 


DICOTYLEDONS    AS   POISONOUS   PLANTS  69 

can  be  kept  in  alcohol  for  winter  study  and  many  of  them  can  be  obtained  in  Europe  and 
in  eastern  and  western  America. 

2.  Apply  the  delicate  Dunstan  and  Carr  test  for  aconitin.     A  dilute  solution  of  the 
alkaloid,  even  i  part  in  4000  parts  of  water,  faintly  acidulated  with  acetic  acid,  de- 
posits a  red  crystalline  precipitate  or  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  potassium 
permanganate.     This  reaction  is  quite  characteristic  and  extremely  delicate. 

3.  Morphin  dissolved  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  containing  formaldehyde 
(2  drops  of  40  per  cent,  solution  to  3  c.c.  of  sulphuric  acid)  produces  a  fine  violet  to 
almost  blue  coloration  (Marquis,  1900). 

4.  Experimental  work  in  pharmacology  following  the  directions  of  Charles  W. 
Greene,  Experimental  Pharmacology,  pages  15  and  48,  can  be  made  with  morphin  and 
aconite. 


CHAPTER  7 
LOCO  WEEDS  AND  OTHER  POISONOUS  PLANTS 

Black  Locust — (Robinia  pseudo-acacia). — This  is  a  tall  forest  tree  of 
eastern  North  America  with  a  rough  bark,  pinnately  compound  leaves. 
Its  papilionaceous  flowers  are  white,  sweet-scented  and  borne  in  pendulous 
racemes.  Its  wood  is  hard  and  during  the  world  war,  1914-18,  was  much 
sought  after  to  make  the  wooden  pins  used  in  building  the  emergency 
fleet  of  wooden  vessels.  The  bark  and  leaves  of  this  tree  contains  a 
powerful  poison  which  has  proved  fatal  in  a  number  of  cases.  The  bark 
of  this  tree  contains  a  toxic  albumose  and  a  toxic  glucoside,  named  robitin, 
which  has  now  been  isolated  by  B .  Tasaki  and  U.  Tanaka.  In  the  fresh  bark 
one  per  cent,  of  the  glucoside  is  present,  and  the  toxic  reaction  is  caused 
by  a  dose  of  0.0015  gram  in  the  horse  and  0.02  gram  in  cattle.  The  reac- 
tion of  robitin  when  injected  into  horses  is  exactly  that  produced  by  the 
fresh  bark,  and  consists  in  dyspnoea,  increase  of  secretions  and  excretions 
and  paralysis  of  the  hind  quarters.  The  seeds  also  are  poisonous. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  like  those  produced  by 
belladonna  and  this  is  manifested  in  the  cases  of  several  horses  that  ate 
the  bark  off  the  tree  for  the  animals  had  colic,  tympanites  and  paralysis. 
The  most  prominent  case  where  human  beings  were  poisoned  is  given  by 
Dr.  Z.  P.  Emery.  In  March  1887,  thirty- two  boys  inmates  of  the  Brook- 
lyn Orphan  Asylum  were  poisoned  at  one  time  by  eating  the  bark  of  the 
tree.  The  symptoms  were  the  vomiting  of  a  ropy  mucus,  flushing  of  the 
face,  dilated  pupil,  dryness  of  the  throat,  feeble  pulse,  extremities  cool,  face 
pale,  vomiting  of  blood,  cold  extremities,  heart  feeble  and  intermittent, 
face  deathly  pale  with  stupor.  A  rash  similar  to  that  of  belladonna  poi- 
soning was  present,  but  only  temporary.  A  high-fever  was  noticed  in  the 
•beginning.  The  treatment  consisted  of  sinapisms  over  the  stomach, 
subcarbonate  of  bismuth,  camphor  and  brandy. 

Rroom(Cytisus  (Sarothamnus)  scoparius). — This  European  shrub  is 
rather  uncommon  in  America,  but  on  Nantucket,  Naushon  and  elsewhere 
it  has  been  planted  to  hold  embankments.  It  has  also  become  adventive 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  tough,  wiry  stems  are  dark  green  and  the  leaves 

70 


LOCO    WEEDS   AND    OTHER   POISONOUS    PLANTS 


are  trifoliate.  The  alkaloid  in  the  plant  is  cytisin  CuHu^O  which  occurs 
also  in  other  species  of  Cytisus  and  in  some  other  leguminous  plants. 
Spartein  (CuE^e^),  as  a  volatile  alkaloid,  if  administered  to  rabbits  in 
single  doses,  is  sufficient  to  produce  death.  The  symptoms  of  poisoning 
are  those  of  narcotics  resembling  coniin,  which  causes  paralysis  of  the 
central  nervous  system. 

Burma  Bean  (Java  Bean,  Paigya,  (Phaseolus  lunatus}. — As  some 
cargoes  of  Bui  ma  beans  were  found 
to  be  of  a  poisonous  character,  the 
Burma  Department  of  Agriculture 
was  urged  to  encourage  the  cultiva- 
tion of  beans  containing  less  cyanide 
than  Phaseolus  lunatus.  As  the  result 
of  experiments  reviewed  in  Bulletin 
79  of  the  Agricultural  Research 
Institute,  Pusa,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  Madagascar  beans  are  not 
suitable  for  replacing  the  Pe-gya  and 
Pe-byangale  beans  so  largely  grown 
in  Burma,  and  moreover  after  two 
years  cultivation  their  prussic  acid 
content  increased.  From  tests  made 
with  common  cultures  of  the  Paigya 
bean,  it  is  concluded  that  those  with 
a  low  hydrogen  cyanide  content  give  FIG.  28.— Lupine  (Lupinus  leucophyi- 

10W  figures  when  grown  in  different  '«*)•     One-half  natural  size.     (After  Hall, 

>  Harvey    M.    and  Gates,   Harry  S.:  Stock 

localities,  but  the  content  varies  COn-  Poisoning  Plants  of  California.     Bull.  249, 

Slderablv  with  different  soil  and  cli-  University     of     California     Agricultural 

,.",..  .  Experiment  Station,  1915,  p.  237. 

matic  conditions.      The  Prussic  acid 

is  developed  from  a  cyanogenetic  glucoside,  phaseolunatin  (CiuHnO&N). 
The  colored  forms  of  beans  yield  the  largest  amount  of  hydrocyanic  acid. 
Lupines  (Lupinus  spp.). — The  lupines  have  been  known  from  the 
earliest  times  and  their  value  as  a  fodder  crop  was  recognized.  Bread 
was  also  made  out  of  lupine  meal  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Pliny  men- 
tions the  use  of  lupine  seeds  in  medicine.  Poisoning  by  lupines  were 
noted  as  early  as  1860,  but  in  1872,  following  heavy  losses  of  sheep  in 
northern  Germany,  considerable  attention  was  given  to  the  poisonous 
properties  of  lupine  hay.  In  this  country  from  1899  on,  the  experimental 


72  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANT 

studies  of  Chestnut,  Wilcox,  the  Marshes  and  Clawson  have  thrown 
considerably  light  upon  the  subject  of  lupinosis  (Fig.  28). 

Loss  of  Animals. — Sheep  have  mainly  suffered  from  feeding  upon  the 
lupines  and  the  losses  have  been  heavy,  but  horses,  cattle,  goats,  swine  and 
fallow  deer  have  been  poisoned  and  experiments  with  small  animals  show 
that  none  were  immune  to  the  toxic  substances.  The  losses  in  Europe 
have  in  some  years  been  very  great.  In  1880  in  Pomerania,  the  loss  of 
sheep  was  almost  6  per  cent.  The  loss  of  sheep  in  America  has  been  heavy. 
Chestnut  and  Wilcox  (1901)  cite  that  of  2,000  sheep  pastured  over  a 
region  rich  in  lupine  plants,  1,000  sheep  were  sick  and  700  died.  In 
another  locality,  1,150  animals  died  out  of  a  flock  of  2500. 

Nature  of  Poisons. — Lupinus  luteus  the  European  species,  "Vhich 
has  been  investigated  most  carefully  contains  two  alkaloids,  lupinin  (Cn 
HidN^Oz)  and  lupinidin  (CgHisN).  Investigations  in  Europe,  how- 
ever, suggest  that  these  alkaloids  are  not  responsible,  but  that  the  active 
substance  is  ictrogen  formed  as  the  result  of  the  growth  of  microorganisms 
upon  the  plant.  Investigation  of  American  species  has  failed  to  show  the 
presence  of  ictrogen,  but  the  American  lupines  contain  alkaloids  which 
are  toxic  or  fatal,  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  plant  is  consumed.  The 
lupine  alkaloids  produce  a  stimulation  and  then  paralysis  of  the  respira- 
tory and  vasomotor  centers,  some  convulsive  centers,  the  vagus  end 
mechanism  and  perhaps  the  vagus  center.  Large  doses  given  intra- 
venously paralyze  the  heart  muscles.  The  fatal  doses  for  rabbits  by  the 
stomach  are  between  30  and  50  grams  per  kg.  of  the  seeds  of  Lupinus 
leucophyllus  and  L.  sericeus  and  between  70  and  100  grams  per  kg.  for  the 
seed  of  Lupinus  cyaneus.  The  cause  of  death  is  paralysis  of  the  respira- 
tion. The  seeds  are  the  most  poisonous,  then  in  order  the  pods  and  the 
leaves. 

Symptoms. — Sheep  poisoned  by  lupine  froth  at  the  mouth,  their 
breathing  is  heavy  and  labored,  subsiding  into  a  condition  of  coma,  the 
animal  falling  over  as  in  a  deep  sleep.  In  acute  cases,  there  is  dyspnoea 
with  the  tongue  and  mouth  cyanotic  and  the  peripheral  blood-vessels 
congested.  Sometimes  in  these  attacks  of  dyspnoea  the  animal  dies  in 
convulsions.  In  other  cases,  the  animal  dies  in  coma.  The  convulsive 
attacks  of  dyspnoea,  however,  may  be  considered  typical  of  lupine  poison- 
ing. Dropping  of  the  ears  is  an  early  symptom  and  in  many  cases  the 
poisoned  animal  is  continuallly  pushing  its  head  against  surrounding 
objects.  When  affected  on  the  range,  they  run  about  in  a  frenzied 


LOCO   WEEDS   AND    OTHER   POISONOUS   PLANTS  73 

way,  butting  into  other  animals  and  objects.  If  the  sheep  does  not  die  in 
the  period  of  excitement,  it  staggers  until  it  falls,  then  lies  in  a  stupor, 
which  in  fatal  cases  gradually  grows  more  pronounced.  The  pulse  and 
respiration  are  very  high  in  the  acute  stages  of  poisoning,  but  there  is  no 
effect  on  the  temperature  except  in  prolonged  cases  where  the  temperature 


PIG.  29. — Loco  Weed  (Aragallus  (Oxytropis)  Lamberti)  natural  size.  (After  Blank- 
inship,  J.  W.:  The  Loco  and  some  other  poisonous  plants  in  Montana  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  1903,  p.  80,  originally  after  U.  S.  Department,  of  Agriculture.) 

gradually  falls  to  between  98°  and  99°F.  The  symptoms  may  appear  in 
i  or  2  hours  after  the  food  is  eaten,  or  in  other  cases  nearly  24  hours  may 
elapse.  Death  may  follow  quickly,  or  the  animal  may  live  for  2  or  3  days. 
The  result  of  autopsies  show  the  peripheral  blood  vessels  strongly 
congested.  The  left  heart  is  strongly  contracted,  the  lungs  and  liver 


74 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


congested.  The'  blood-vessels  of  the  brain  are  congested,  as  well,  as 
those  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  ileum.  With  horses  the  general  symptoms 
noticed  are  twitching  of  the  surface  muscles,  constipation,  dullness,  and 
a  tendency  when  walking  to  lift  the  fore  feet  high. 

Stemless  Loco  Weed  (Aragallus  (Oxytropis)  Lambertii}. — This  is  a 
perennial  herb  arising  from  a  vertical  thick,  persistent  tap  root  and  with 
radical,  compound  leaves  with  11-17  narrowly  lanceolate  leaflets.  The 
racemes  are  erect,  elongate  and  bear  white  to  dark  bluish-purple  papilion- 
aceous flowers  succeeded  by  an  erect,  lance-oblong  pod  (Fig.  29).  The 


PIG.  30. — Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  distribution  of  the  stemless  loco 
weed.  (Aragallus  Lamberti).  (After  Farmers'  Bulletin  380,  1909,  p.  9,  The  Loco  Weed 
Disease.) 

plant  is  distributed  over  the  plains  region  from  Alberta  and  Assiniboia 
in  Canada  south  into  Mexico,  and  from  Minnesota  and  Kansas  westward 
to  the  Rocky  mountains  (Fig.  30).  Plants  bloom  in  Colorado  in  the  latter 
part  of  April.  In  parts  of  Colorado,  Wyoming  and  Montana  at  the  time 
of  flowering,  large  areas  are  as  white  as  though  covered  with  snow 
(Fig.  31)- 

Wooly  Loco  Weed  (Astragalus  mollissimus) . — This  perennial  herb  is 
frequently  designated  as  "stemmed,"  because  it  has  a  leafy  stem,  which  is 
somewhat  decumbent,  bearing  compound  leaves  with  23-29  leaflets 


LOCO    WEEDS    AND    OTHER   POISONOUS    PLANTS  75 

covered  with  silky-villous  hairs,  hence  wooly.  The  bright-purple  papili- 
onaceous flowers  are  borne  in  short  racemes  and  are  followed  by  cylindric 
pods  about  2  cm.  long.  The  geographic  distribution  of  this  plant  partly 
overlaps  that  of  the  first  mentioned  loco  weed.  It  ranges  from  South 
Dakota  south  to  Mexico  and  through  western  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Okla- 
homa, Texas,  nearly  the  whole  of  New  Mexico,  eastern  Arizona,  Colorado 
and  southwestern  Wyoming.  It  grows  on  adobe  soils  in  depressions 
rather  than  in  elevated  situations,  occurring  in  patches  covering  several 


PIG.  31. — Stemless  loco- weed  (Aragallus  (Qxytropis)  Lamberti)  on  cattle  range  of 
the  western  plains.  (After  photograph  reproduced  as  cover  illustration  of  Marsh,  C. 
Dwight:  The  Loco-weed  Disease,  Farmers'  Bulletin  1054,  July,  1919.) 

acres,  rather  than  in  continuous  stretches  of  country.  It  blooms  in 
Colorado  about  June  i,  but  further  south  in  New  Mexico,  it  flowers  as 
early  as  April. 

Blue  Loco  Weed  or  Rattleweed  (Astragalus  diphysus  =  Cystium  di- 
physum). — This  perennial  herb  is  more  western  and  southwestern  in  its 
distribution  than  the  other  two  loco  weeds.  It  ranges  through  Colorado, 
New  Mexico,  Arizona  extreme  southern  Nevada  and  southern  California, 
and  is  the  common  loco  weed,  or  rattleweed,  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.' 


76  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

It  is  very  different  in  its  appearance  from  the  former  two  loco  plants. 
The  stems  are  ascending,  or  decumbent,  2-4  in.  high  becoming  small  ovate 
to  oblong  leaflets,  19-21  in  number  to  each  compound  leaf.  The  plant  has 
in  its  vegetative  condition  a  rough  resemblance  to  alfalfa.  The  flowers 
are  produced  in  a  dense  spike  and  are  blue,  purple,  or  violet  in  color. 
The  pods  are  inflated,  hence  bladder-like  and  in  the  immature  sta  e  are 
streaked  with  purple. 

Loco  Weeds  in  General. — The  three  plants  described  above  are  usually 
considered  together  as  loco  weeds.  They  have  occasioned  the  poisoning 
of  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  field.  The  wooly  loco  weed  poisons  horses 
generally,  and  is  rarely  injurious  to  cattle,  which  will  not  eat  the  plant 


FIG.  32. — Case  8.  Steer  pastured  on  stemless  loco-weed  (Aragallus  Lamberti.) 
Showing  the  effect  of  the  plant  in  leaping  unnecessarily  high  in  going  over  a  rut  in 
the  road.  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight:  The  Loco-weed  Disease  of  the  Plains,  Bulletin  112, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Plate  III,  Fig.  4,  June  28,  1909.) 

readily.  Horses  as  a  rule  begin  to  feed  upon  the  plant  when  they  are  short 
of  food.  Both  the  wooly  and  stemless  loco  weeds  are  green  during  the 
winter,  when  all  the  plains  grasses  are  dry  and  brown.  Hence,  they  are 
especially  dangerous  in  the  spring,  when  the  horses  and  cattle  are  turned 
out  to  pasture.  Once  the  animals  feed  upon  the  plant,  they  acquire  the 
habit  and  this  shows  the  development  of  a  depraved  appetite,  which  was 
attributed  by  some  to  the  presence  of  tape  worms. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  poisoning  in  horses  are  quite  marked. 
A  high-spirited  horse  becomes  dull  followed  by  irregular  gait  and  irregular 
mode  of  feeding.  The  horse  drags  its  feet  more  or  less  (Fig.  33).  Asso- 
ciated with  this  partial  paralysis  is  an  apparent  loss  of  muscular  control 


LOCO   WEEDS   AND    OTHER   POISONOUS   PLANTS 


77 


FIG.  33. — Case  525.  Horse  showing  peculiar  gait  which  is  exhibited  by  an  animal 
which  has  been  locoed.  After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight:  The  Loco-weed  Disease  of  the  Plains, 
Bulletin  112,  Bureau,  of  Animal  Industry,  Plate  V,  Fig.  3,  June  25,  1909.) 


Frc.  34.— Case  525.  Locoed  horse  rearing  when  suddenly  startled  by  a  hat  thrown 
out  in  front  of  it,  August  23,  1905.  This  horse  was  very  poor,  being  little  but  skin  and 
bones,  with  rough  coat  and  shaggy  mane  and  tail.  (After  Marsh,  C.  Dwight:  The  Loco- 
weed  Disease  of  the  Plains,  Bulletin  112,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Plate  V,  Fig.  4, 
June  25,  1909.) 


78  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

the  animal  stepping  high  (Fig.  32)  in  approaching  a  stone;  or  a  rut  in  the 
road,  and  shies  at  imaginary  objects  (Fig.  34).  As  the  disease  progresses, 
the  animal  seeks  solitude,  rearing  up  if  approached.  The  jaws  have  a 
stiff  motion  in  eating,  or  drinking.  The  animal  loses  flesh,  its  coat  be- 
corries  rough,  it  ceases  to  eat  and  soon  dies.  The  symptoms  of  locoed  cat- 
tle are  similar  to  those  of  locoed  horses.  There  is  the  same  lack  of  mus- 
cular control,  a  violently  shaking  head,  frantic  running  into  obstructions. 
A  locoed  animal  is  almost  impossible  to  drive,  as  it  is  likely  to  run  into  the 
driver,  and  in  the  opposite  direction.  Locoed  cattle  have  staring  eyes, 
rough  coats  and  gradually  lose  flesh.  They  go  to  water  less  and  less  fre- 
quently and  eventually  die  of  starvation. 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning  in  sheep  are  not  so  marked  as  with  horses 
and  cattle.  Locoed  sheep  are  generally  more  weak,  stumbling,  falling  and 
rising  again  with  difficulty.  Post-mortem  examinations  show  accumula- 
tions of  coagulated  serum  in  a  gelatinous  form  in  various  parts  of  the  body 
especially  about  the  heart  and  spinal  column.  The  nervous  system  in 
locoed  animals  is  more  richly  supplied  with  blood  than  in  normal  animals. 

Cause  of  Locoism. — The  specific  cause  of  poisoning  by  loco  weeds  was 
sought  early  in  the  presence  of  some  toxic  substance,  in  the  plants,  but 
chemical  analysis  failed  to  reveal  such.  Recourse  was  then  made  to  the 
presence  of  tapeworms  in  the  alimentary  tract  of  various  animals,  but 
these  can  hardly  be  the  real  cause  of  the  characteristic  symptoms  of 
locoism.  Dr.  Albert  C.  Crawford  from  his  laboratory  work  concludes; 
"The  symptoms  in  stock  on  the  range  can  be  reproduced  in  rabbits  by 
feeding  extracts  of  certain  loco  plants.  It  is  the  inorganic  constituents, 
especially  barium,  which  are  responsible  for  this  poisonous  action.  There 
is  a  close  analogy  between  the  clinical  symptoms  and  pathological  find- 
ings in  barium  poisoning  and  those  resulting  from  feeding  extracts  of 
certain  of  these  plants.  Small  doses  of  barium  salts  may  be  administered 
to  rabbits  without  apparent  effect,  but  suddenly  acute  symptoms  develop 
analogous  to  those  reported  on  the  ranges."  Marsh  dismisses  the  previ- 
ously suggested  causes  of  the  disease,  other  than  the  plants  themselves, 
as  having  no  reasonable  basis  as  to  render  them  tenable.  The  adminis- 
tration of  sulphates,  especially  epsom  salts  to  form  the  insoluble  barium 
sulphate,  is  suggested  by  the  above  discovery  of  the  inorganic  cause  of 
the  loco  disease.  The  dose  used  in  experiments  with  mature  cattle  was 
about  one  pound  given  in  the  form  of  a  drench.  For  horses,  the  dose 
should  be  about  8  ounces  and  for  full-grown  sheep  4  ounces.  To  improve 


LOCO    WEEDS    AND    OTHER   POISONOUS    PLANTS  79 

the  nervous  condition  of  the  horses,  Fowler's  solution  in  daily  .doses  of 
4  to  6  drams  in  the  drinking  water  was  found  best.  The  use  of  strych- 
nin was  found  best  for  cattle.  Sodium  cacodylate  administered  hypo- 
dermically  to  cattle  in  injections  of  6  grains,  or  0.4  gram,  daily  gave 
beneficial  results.  Recovery  is  generally  shown  with  chronically  locoed 
animals.  Loco  weeds  may  be  destroyed  by  cutting  off  below  the  crown  of 
buds,  because  sprouting  is  rendered  impossible. 

Rattle-box  (Crotalaria  sagittalis). — This  is  an  annual  plant  growing 
3  inches  to  a  foot  high  with  small  straight  root  and  branched  stem  with 
yellow  flowers  and  an  inflated  pod,  which  finally  contains  a  lot  of  loose  seeds 
which  rattle  about  when  the  pod  is  dry.  The  plant  is  distributed  from 
Maine  to  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  northern  Texas. 
It  is  very  common  on  the  sandbars  of  the  Missouri  River,  hence  the  '^disease 
produced  by  it  which  resembles  in  general  that  induced  by  loco  weeds,  is 
known  as  the  Missouri  Bottom  Disease.  Animals  have  been  locoed 
by  eating  rattle-box  in  New  Jersey. 

Box  (Buxus  sempermrens) . — This  is  a  tall,  evergreen  shrub  with  small, 
dark-green,  leathery,  elliptical  leaves.  The  flowers  are  small  and  rather 
inconspicuous.  The  shrub  has  been  used  for  hedges  in  old-fashioned 
gardens  and  has  been  much  planted  in  cemeteries.  All  parts  of  the 
plant  are  bitter  and  poisonous.  Animals,  horses  and  pigs,  may  browse 
upon  box,  or  eat  the  hedge  trimmings  and  be  killed.  Buxin  is  the  toxic 
alkaloid,  while  three  other  substances  have  been  isolated  from  the  plant. 
Small  amounts  of  box  have  an  emetic  and  purgative  action.  The  symp- 
toms of  poisoning  are  nervous  symptoms,  lameness,  muscular  tremors, 
vertigo,  then  a  period  of  coma.  Large  amounts  cause  death  preceded  by 
intense  abdominal  pains,  dysentery,  tenesmus,  convulsions,  circulatory 
and  respiratory  troubles.  Pigs  are  most  susceptible  displaying  thirst, 
uncertain  movements,  delirium.  Death  occurs  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Spurges  (Euphorbia  spp.). — The  spurges  are  erect,  spreading  or  pros- 
trate herbs,  with  milky,  acid  juice  and  opposite,  or  alternate  leaves,  the 
upper  in  whorls  and  frequently  colored  at  the  tops.  The  acrid,  milky 
juice  is  poisonous,  but  poisoning  cases  are  rare  because  cattle  usually 
rarely  eat  of  them  because  the  taste  is  repulsive.  Euphorbia  marginata 
is  one  of  the  many  species  in  the  United  States.  In  Texas,  it  is  used  in 
the  branding  of  cattle.  The  seeds  of  this  species  have  proved  nearly 
fatal  to  children  that  have  eaten  them.  Dr.  Millspaugh  gives  the  physio- 
logical action  of  the  caper  spurge  (Euphorbia  Lathyris]  as  staring,  wide- 


80  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

open  eyes,  dilated  pupils,  death-like  pallor,  retching  and  vomiting,  violent 
purgation,  frequent  stools,  copious  and  in  some  cases  bloody,  irregular 
pulse,  whole  body  cold  and  rigid,  succeeded  by  heat  and  perspiration. 
Country  people  in  England  have  used  the  fruits  of  this  plant  as  a  purge 
and  as  a  pickle,  but  their  poisonous  character  renders  them  dangerous. 
Cows  that  have  eaten  of  the  spurges  give  a  reddish  or  sharp-tasting  milk 
and  the  milk  of  affected  goats  caused  diarrhoea  in  human  beings. 

Castor  Oil  Plant  (Ricinus  communis). — The  palma  christi  is  an  annual 
plant  in  temperate  regions,  but  in  the  tropics  it  becomes  a  small,  perennial 
tree.  Its  leaves  are  large,  broad,  palmately  lobed  and  veined.  Its 
flowers  are  borne  in  separate  clusters,  as  pistillate  and  staminate  on  the 
same  plant.  The  fruit  is  covered  with  soft  spines  and  the  seeds  contained 
therein  are  provided  with  a  terminal  spongy  mass  of  tissue,  the  carunculus. 
The  seeds  are  albuminous  with  an  oily  reserve  food.  The  oil  expressed 
from  the  seeds  is  the  medicinal  castor  oil  with  strongly  purgative  proper- 
ties. The  seeds,  as  a  whole,  are  poisonous  ,and  were  used  in  Europe  by 
farmers  to  poison  recalcitrant  sheep,  that  developed  the  habit  of  jumping 
fences  into  strange  pasture  fields.  Pigs  and  poultry  have  been  poisoned 
by  eating  the  seeds.  The  press  cake  was  the  cause  of  the  death  of  80 
sheep,  as  reported  by  M.  Audibert  near  Beaucaire,  France. 

Poisonous  Principles. — Ricin  is  the  toxic  body  similar  to  bacterial 
toxins.  Animals  can  be  immunized  by  the  use  of  an  antitoxic  body  anti- 
ricin.  Ricinin  (CgHgOo^)  is  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  seeds.  Its 
toxic  action  is  doubtful.  Symptoms  of  poisoning  appear  some  days  after 
ingestion  of  the  beans  or  press-cake.  Purging  is  marked.  In  the  case  of 
horses,  ^ey  lose  their  appetite,  shiver,  have  cold  extremities,  dejection, 
abdominal  pain,  constipation  with  a  temperature  of  io3°F.  and  a  pulse  of 
70.  Death  follows  in  about  three  days. 

Poison  Ivy. — (Rhus  radicans,  Rhus  Toxicodendron). — The  poison  ivy 
is  a  vine  which  climbs  up  the  trunks  of  trees  by  short  aerial  roots,  or 
grows  in  a  spreading  prostrate  manner  over  the  ground,  over  stone  piles, 
or  the  dunes  along  the  seashore.  An  upright  form  of  the  plant  is  occa- 
sionally seen.  Its  leaves  are  trifoliately  compound,  lustrous  green  turn- 
ing to  a  red  in  autumn.  Its  flowers  are  greenish-yellow  and  its  drupace- 
ous fruits  white.  The  plant  is  poisonous  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  as  the 
writer  has  been  poisoned  in  midwinter  by  forcing  his  way  through  brush 
over  which  this  ivy  had  grown.  It  is  especially  virulent  after  a  rain  on  a 
hot  summer's  day,  when  one  is  actively  perspiring.  Contact  with  the 
plant  seems  to^be  necessary  to  induce  poisoning.  There  is  a  current  belief 


LOCO   WEEDS   AND    OTHER   POISONOUS   PLANTS  8 1 

that  the  wind  blowing  toward  a  person  from  a  patch  of  poison  ivy  is  suffi- 
cient to  produce  the  usual  rash  on  the  skin  of  susceptible  persons,  but  in 
all  likelihood  such  persons  have  crushed  the  plant  under  foot  and  in  re- 
moving their  shoes  before  going  to  bed  have  removed  the  active  principle 
from  the  surface  of  the  leather.  They  may  also  have  inadvertently 
touched  the  plant  in  passing  by  it.  The  smoke  from  brush  fires  in  which 
poison  ivy  has  been  placed  will  cause  inflammation  of  the  skin  of  face  and 
hands.  Susceptible  persons  in  our  large  department  stores,  who  unpack 
lacquer  ware  imported  from  Japan,  frequently  have  the  characteristic 
dermatitis,  as  the  lacquer  is  made  from  the  juice  of  a  Japanese  sumach, 
Rhus  vernicifera,  and  the  toxic  oil  is  partially  freed  from  the  surface  of  the 
lacquered  objects  during  their  transportation  in  closed  cases  in  which 
steaming  may  occur  from  one  country  to  another  in  the  holds  of  ocean 
steamers.  The  southern  shrub,  Rhus  Toxicodendron,  was  formerly  con- 
sidered to  be  identical  with  the  poison  ivy,  but  recently  the  two  species 
have  been  separated  as  Rhus  radicans  and  Rhus  Toxicodendron.  The 
poison  ivy  ranges  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota,  Florida,  Arkansas  and 
Nebraska,  while  the  shrubby,  Rhus  Toxicodendron,  the  poison  oak,  is 
found  from  North  Carolina  south  to  Florida  and  southwestward  to  Texas. 

A  third  shrub,  known  as  poison  sumach,  poison  oak,  poison  elder, 
poison  dogwood,  thunder-wood,  is  Rhus  Vernix  which  is  found  in  swamps 
from  Ontario  and  Minnesota  south  to  Florida  and  Louisiana.  It  is  more 
virulent  than  the  other  two  species  mentioned  above.  It  grows  to  be  a 
small  freely  branching  tree.  It  has  large  pinnately  compound  leaves, 
panicles  of  greenish  yellow  flowers  and  large,  white,  shining  drupes  pro- 
duced in  open  clusters.  The  California  poison  ivy,  Rhus  diiiersiloba  is 
found  on  the  'Pacific  Coast  from  California  to  Washington.  It  is  an 
erect,  or  climbing,  nearly  smooth  shrub  with  compound  leaves  of  three  to 
five  leaflets  and  flowers  in  loose  axillary  panicles  with  white  fruit.  A  key 
will  enable  one  to  distinguish  these  four  species  of  Rhus. 

Eastern  and  Southern  Species. 

A.  Leaves  trifoliate;  vines  or  low  shrubs. 

Vine  climbing  by  aerial  roots. 

Drupes  5-6  mm.  in  diameter.     Rhus  radicans 
Upright  shrubs. 

Drupes  6-7  mm.  in  diameter  Rhus  Toxicodendron 

B.  Leaves  pinnately  7-11  leaflets;  tall  shrub,  or  small  tree  Rhus 

Vernix. 


82  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

Western  Species  (Pacific  Coast) 

Leaves  trifoliate  to  5-foliate  Rhus  diver siloba.    Rhus  Metopium, 
poison  wood  or  doctor-gum  of  the  south  is  a  tree  with  poisonous  juices. 

Susceptibility. — As  hundreds  of  persons  are  poisoned  every  year  by 
coming  into  contact  with  these  plants,  it  is  important  to  discover  the  causa- 
tive principle.  Immunity  from  the  attack  of  the  poison  of  these  species 
is  relative.  Some  persons  usually  those  with  a  blonde  complexion  are 
very  susceptible.  Others  are  less  so,  while  a  large  number  of  persons 
usually  with  dark,  or  swarthy  complexions  (brunette  type)  are  practically 
immune. 

Active  Principle. — Experiments  (1897)  of  Dr.  Franz  Pfaff  of  Harvard 
University  Medical  School  have  shown  that  the  poison  is  a  fixed  oil, 
toxicodendrol,  closely  allied  to  cardol  from  the  cashew-nut,  Anacar- 
dium  occidentalis.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzene/and  chloroform. 
It  produces  an  insoluble  compound  with  lead.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  plants  described  above.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  therefore  cannot 
be  washed  off  the  skin  with  water  alone. 

The  active  principle  is  poisonous  to  the  skin  causing  inflammation  and 
pustular  eruptions  known  as  dermatitis.  Small  watery  vesicles  appear 
on  the  skin  of  the  hands  usually  on  the  soft  skin  between  the  fingers.  These 
vesicles  may  be  scattered  in  mild  cases,  as  they  may  be  very  numerous. 
Usually  the  eruptions  are  accompanied  by  inflammation  and  itchiness, 
and  the  tendency  is  to  scratch  the  inflamed  areas.  In  severe  cases  the 
pustules  cover  extensive  areas  with  a  swollen  condition  of  the  parts  and 
redness.  Occasionally,  if  the  skin  about  the  eyes  is  poisoned,  the  eyelids 
swell  so  that  the  eyes  are  entirely  closed.  Later  the  vesicles  are  ruptured 
and  their  fluid  contents  are  discharged  upon  the  surface  forming  moist, 
excoriated  surfaces  covered  in  part  with  crusts.  Where  the  inflammation 
reaches  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  internal  organs  by  way  of  the  ex- 
cretory passages  the  consequences  may  be  very  serious.  Death  has  been 
the  result  of  ivy  poisoning  in  relatively  a  few  cases. 

Remedies. — The  most  efficient  remedy  that  has  been  found  is  a  vigor- 
ous washing  and  scrubbing  of  the  skin  of  the  affected  parts  with  soap  and 
water  using  a  brush  for  the  purpose.  This  washes  off  the  poisonous  oil 
before  it  has  a  chance  to  act  upon  the  skin.  The  oil  may  also  be  removed  by 
washing  with  alcohol,  but  the  washing  must  be  thorough  in  order  not  to 
spread  the  infection.  Such  simple  remedies  as  washing  the  skin  with  hot 
salt  water,  rubbing  the  juices  of  rib  grass  (Plantago  lanceolata)  the  leaves 


LOCO   WEEDS    AND    OTHER   POISONOUS   PLANTS  83 

of  touch-me-not  (Impatiens)  and  bean  leaves  upon  the  part  exposed 
to  the  poison  have  been  used.  They  are  beneficial,  although  perhaps  not 
curative  in  their  action.  Dr.  Pfaff  recommends  the  use  of  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  sugar  of  lead  (50  or  70  per  cent,  alcohol).  The  writer  has  used 
all  of  these  remedies  with  relief  to  the  inflamed  parts.  In  only  one  case 
has  his  eyelids  been  swollen  shut  when  he  was  a  little  boy  not  fully  con- 
scious of  the  virulency  of  the  plants  near  which  he  played. 

Desensitization. — Recently  Schamberg,  a  Philadelphia  physician  has 
discovered  a  means  of  desensitizing  persons  against  ivy  poison.  The 
method  of  treatment  which  he  has  devised  is  to  administer  the  medicine 
in  half  a  glass  of  water  after  meals.  The  formula  is  Tincture  of  Rhus 
toxicodendron  i  cc.,  rectified  spirit  5  cc.  and  syrup  or  elixir  of  orange 
100  c.c.  and  it  is  used  as  follows: 

Breakfast,  drops  Lunch,  drops  Dinner,  drops 
I                                                      2  3 

4  5  6 

7  8  9 

10  II  12 

13  H  IS 

16  17  18 

IQ  20  21 

Immunity  established  after  one  months  administration  will  persist  for 
about  a  month  afterward.  The  same  mixture  exerts  a  favorable  influence 
when  given  as  a  prevention  and  in  abbreviating  the  duration  of  the  attack. 
Destruction.— The  destruction  of  the  poison  ivy,  which  .owes  its 
widespread  distribution  to  crows,  can  be  accomplished  by  the  applications 
of  arsenate  of  soda  at  the  rate  of  one  half  to  one  pound  to  five  gallons  of 
water  is  effective,  but  several  applications  are  necessary.  A  solution 
containing  one  pound  of  white  arsenic  and  two  pounds  of  sal  soda  in  five 
gallons  of  water  may  be  used  with  similar  results.  Sulphate  of  iron  one 
hundred  pounds  to  a  barrel  of  water  has  been  found  useful.  Covering  the 
poison  ivy  with  tar  paper  creosoted  below  is  effective,  according  to  Dr. 
G.  E.  Stone. 

Bibliography 

ANON.:  Ivy  Poisoning.     The  Youth's  Companion,  Sept.  12,  1918,  p.  466. 

BLANKINSHIP,  J.  W.:  The  Loco  and  Some  Other  Poisonous  Plants  in  Montana.  Bull- 
etin 45,  Montana  Experimental  Station,  1903. 

CHESTNUT,  V.  K.:  Some  Common  Poisonous  Plants.  Year  Book  of  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1896;  137-146,  1908;  Principal  Poisonous  Plants  of  the 


84  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

United  States.     Bulletin  20,  Division  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

1898;  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants  of  the  United  States.     Farmers'  Bulletin  86,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1898. 
CHESTNUT,  V.  K.  and  WILCOX,  E.  V.:  Stock-poisoning  Plants  of  Montana.     Bulletin 

26,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1901. 
CRAWFORD,  ALBERT  C.:  Laboratory  Work  on  Loco-weed  Investigations.     Bulletin 

121,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1908. 
CRAWFORD,  ALBERT  C.:  Barium,  a  Cause  of  the  Loco-weed  Disease.     Bulletin  129, 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1908. 
HALL,  HARVEY  M.  and  GATES,  HARRY  S.:  Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  California.     Bull- 
etin 249,  University  of  California,  College  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  1915. 
HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W.:  When  is  Rhus  toxicodendron  Most  Active.     Garden  & 

Forest,  8,  239,  1895. 
LERRIGO,  CHARLES  H.:  The  Poison-ivy  Victim,  Methods  of  Cure,  Prevention  and 

Immunization.     The  Country  Gentleman,  May  2,  1914,  page  905. 
LONG,  HAROLD  C.:  Plants  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.     Cambridge  at  the  University 

Press,  1917. 
MARSH,  C.  DWIGHT,  ALSBERG,  C.  L.  and  BLACK,  O.  F.:  The  Relation  of  Barium  to  the 

Loco-weed  Disease.     Bulletin  246,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  1912. 
MARSH,  C.  D.,  CLAWSON,  A.  B.  and  MARSH,  HADLEIGH:  Lupines  as  Poisonous  Plants. 

Bulletin  405,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Professional  Paper,  December 

S,  1916. 
MARSH,  C.  DWIGHT:  The  Loco-weed  Disease  of  the  Plains.     Bulletin  112,  Bureau  of 

Animal  Industry,  1909. 
MARSH,  C.  D.:  Results  of  Loco-weed  Investigation  in  the  Field.     Bulletin  121,  Bureau 

of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1908. 
MARSH,  C.  D.:  The  Loco-weed  Disease.     Farmers'  Bulletin  380  (1909)  and  1054 

(1919),  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1919. 
MOHLER,  JOHN  R.:  Cerebrospinal  Meningitis  ("Forage  Poisoning").     Bulletin  65, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Feb.  14,  1914. 
ANON.:  The  Poisonous  Bark  of  Black  Locust  Tree.     Nature,  103,  132,  April  17,  1919; 

TASAKI,  B:  and  TANAKA,  U. :  Journal  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of 

Tokyo,  III,  No.  5,  337. 

PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants,  Part  2,  1911. 
SCHAMBERG,  JAY  FRANK:  Desensitization  of  Persons  Against  Ivy  Poison.     Journal 

American  Medical  Assoc.,  73,  1213,  Oct.  18,  1919. 
STABLER,  HARRY  SNOWDEN:  A  Poison-ivy  Remedy,  the  Touch-Me-Not  Weed  as  a  Cure. 

The  Country  Gentleman,  September  19,  1914,  page  1573. 
STONE,  GEORGE  E.:  Poison  Ivy  (Rhus  toxicodendron  L.).     Nature  Leaflet  No.  9,  Fourth 

Edition  Revised,  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Massachusetts,  June  3,  1915. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestion  to  Teachers. — A  supply  of  the  plants  described  in  this  chapter  should 
be  kept  in--the  dried  state  for  distribution  to  the  class.     Some  of  the  material   (such 


LOCO   WEEDS    AND    OTHER   POISONOUS   PLANTS  85 

as  the  flowers)  may  be  kept  in  alcohol.  Sections  of  the  stems  of  one  or  two  of  the 
spurges  should  be  kept  in  alcohol.  European  teachers  can  make  selections  of  European 
plants  mentioned  in  this  chapter.  The  loco-weeds  are  found  on  the  great  plains  and 
the  rattlebox  in  the  east,  etc. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  dried  plant  given  you  in  all  of  its  parts.     The  study  of  the  flowers 
may  be  facilitated  by  the  use  of  fresh  or  alcoholic  material.     This  will  emphasize  the 
structure  of  the  papilionaceous  and  euphorbiaceous  flowers. 

2.  Stain  mount  and  study  the  longitudinal  section  of  the  stem  of  some  spurge,  as 
Euphorbia  splendens,  to  see  the  distribution  and  contents  of  the  latex  tubes.     Other 
species  of  Euphorbia  occurring  in  Europe  and  elsewhere  may  be  substituted  for  this  one. 

3.  Examine  and  draw  the  seeds  of  the  castor-oil,  Ricinus  communis.     Draw  the 
young  seedlings  previously  started  by  the  teacher  by  planting  the  seeds  in  sand,  or 
sphagnum  moss.     Study  the  developmental  stages  of  the  same. 


CHAPTER  8 
MISCELLANEOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANJS 

St.  John's  Wort  (Hypericum  perforatum).—This  is  a  perennial,  much- 
branched  herb  with  sessile,  elliptical  leaves  having  punctate  oil  glands 
with  a  few  purple-spotted  ones.  The  yellow  flowers  are  found  in  cymose 
clusters.  The  stamens  are  numerous,  but  arranged  in  five  clusters 
(pentadelphous). 

Symptoms. — White-skinned  cattle  and  sheep  eating  St.  John's  wort 
show  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  white  skin,  although  dark  skin  remains 
unchanged.  An  entire  herd  of  Holstein  cattle  has  been  seen  with  all  the 
white  skin  hanging  in  sheets,  while  the  black  skin  remained  intact.  The 
ears  at  times  in  sheep  are  greatly  swollen,  and  if  the  eyes  are  effected  total 
and  permanent  blindness  may  develop.  If  the  animal  is  entirely  white 
death  may  follow,  as  with  extensive  burns,  the  inflammation  extending 
over  three-fourths  of  the  skin  area.  This  plant  is  a  decided  hindrance  to 
grazing  in  the  French  colonies  of  northern  Africa,  as  in  Tunis.  Exposure 
to  sunlight  is  necessary  to  the  development  of  the  curious  symptoms  of 
the  disease,  and  animals  rapidly  recover,  if  they  are  protected  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  for  it  appears,  as  if  the  herb  sensitizes  the  skin  to 
the  invisible  chemical  rays  (the  ultra  violet)  of  the  solar  spectrum.  Deaths 
of  horses  poisoned  by  this  plant  have  been  reported  at  Norwood,  Maryland 
within  a  few  years.  As  the  herb  preserves  all  its  activities  when  dried, 
it  may  cause  trouble,  if  fed  in  hay  to  horses.  The  treatment  consists 
in  blackening  the  white  skin  with  a  mixture  of  charcoal,  linseed  oil  and 
lime  water.  This  is  applied  with  a  brush  and  the  animals  are  kept  from 
sunlight  and  from  eating  St.  John's  wort.  Cows  pastured  in  a  field  with 
this  plant,  if  white-nosed  animals,  have  their  udders  crowded  with  erup- 
tions due  to  contact  with  the  St.  John's  wort  especially  on  dewy  mornings. 

The  symptoms  other  than  those  reported  above  are  dullness,  a  sinking 
of  the  head,  loss  of  appetite,  slackening  of  the  pulse  and  respiration,  dila- 
tion of  the  pupils,  defective  sight  and  purple  lips. 

Poisonous  Principle. — The  oil,  which  is  responsible  for  the  poisoning 
of  the  animals,  is  located  in  little  glandular  areas  which  give  the  leaf  a 

86 


MISCELLANEOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS  87 

perforated  appearance,  when  the  leaf  is  held  between  the  eye  and  the 
light.  The  purple  coloring  matter  in  the  terminal  glands  has  been  isolated 
and  named  hypericum  red.  This  dye  is  fluorescent  in  solution  and  much 
resembles  certain  aniline  derivatives. 

English  Ivy  (Hedera  helix). — This  climbing  plant  makes  the  ascent 
of  tree  trunks,  stone  and  brick  walls  by  means  of  short,  aerial  roots.  Its 
leaves  are  lobed,  dark,  lustrous,  evergreen.  The  plant  is  not  known  to  be 
poisonous  to  stock,  but  children 
have  been  poisoned  by  eating  the 
berries. 

The  plant  contains  a  bitter 
principle  with  cathartic,  emetic 
and  purgative  properties.  A 
poisonous  glucoside  hederin 
(C64Hio40ig)  and  a  resin  is  found 
i.n  the  English  ivy.  The 
symptoms  produced  in  children 
were  diarrhoea,  nervous  symp- 
toms resembling  those  of  intoxica- 
tion, excitement  at  first,then  coma, 
convulsions,  uncertain  gait,  ster- 
torous respiration  and  paralysis. 

Water  Hemlock,  Oregon 
Hemlock  and  European  Hemlock 
(Cicuta  maculata,  C.  vagans  and 
C.  virosa). 

Description. — These  plants  of 
the  family  UMBELLIFER.E  _,  PIG  as.-Water  hemlock 

3  dentalts).      One-half     natural     size.      (After 

(APIACE^;)     are     also     known    as     Hall,   Harvey  M.  and  Gates,   Harry  S.:  Stock 

cowbane,  musquash  root,  musk-    £>'">»»»*  ««»"?  °f  California  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station,  1915,  p.  223.) 

rat  weed.  The  American  cow- 
bane,  Cicuta  maculata,  has  tuberous  rootstocks  from  which  arise  in 
swampy  situations  a  stem  one  to  two  meters  tall  bearing  twice  to  thrice 
compound  leaves.  The  leaf  segments  are  lanceolate,  or  ellyptic-lanceolate, 
acuminate,  coarsely  serrate.  The  flowers  are  white  borne  in  compound 
umbels  subtended  by  linear-subulate  bracts.  This  species  ranges  from 
New  Brunswick  to  Manitoba  to  Virginia  and  Texas.  The  western 
species,  Cicuta  vagans,  is  found  about  lakes,  in  wet  meadows  and  swamps 


f 

88  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

from  British  Columbia,  Montana,  Idaho  to  California.  Besides  Cicuta  vi- 
osa,  the  European  species,  and  the  above-mentioned,  the  following  species 
of  Cicuta  have  been  reported  as  poisonous:  C.  bulbifera,  C.  Bolanden,  C. 
occidentalis  (Fig.  35),  C.  calif ornica,  C.  Curtisii,  C.  Douglasii,  C.  purpurea, 
and  C.  tenuifolia. 

Cases  and  Symptoms. — The  number  of  cases  of  cowbane  poisoning  in 
Europe  has  been  large.  In  this  country  also,  especially  in  the  East,  the 
number  of  cases  reported  by  physicians  has  been  considerable.  The 
writers  personal  acquaintance  with  poisoning  by  the  cowbane  of~the 
eastern  states,  Cicuta  maculata,  began  with  the  receipt  of  specimens  of 
rhizome  received  from  Dr.  G.  A.  Ricketts  of  Smithmill,  Pa.,  on  April  2, 
1912.  Excerpts  from  his  letter  of  March  31,  1912  are  here  given.  "Yes- 
terday, March  30  (n  to  12  M.)  Chester  Mulhollen,  aged  8,  Willard  Mul- 
hollen,  aged  10  and  Harold  Fun  aged  9  mistook  these  tubers  for  artichokes. 
They  ate  of  them  for  about  half  an  hour,  consuming  I  suppose  about  as 
much  as  I  mail  to  you.  All  three  became  suddenly  ill  a  few  minutes 
after  they  stopped  eating.  Chester  M.  started  toward  the  house  about 
ibo  feet  distant  and  fell  in  the  door  in  a  convulsion,  never  regaining  con- 
sciousness. Harold  F.  dropped  where  he  was  in  convulsions.  Willard 
M.  became  ill  a  few  minutes  later,  and  acted  exactly  like  the  others.  The 
neighbors  induced  vomiting  in  the  two  latter,  but  were  unable  to  force 
Chester  to  swallow.  He  did  not  vomit  at  any  time.  Chester  died  at 
3  p.  M.  The  other  two  are  recovering  rapidly.  Today  both  are  able 
to  walk  about,  and  have  no  pain.  I  did  not  reach  the  scene  until  two 
hours  after  the  convulsions  began.  The  boys  were  totally  unconscious 
and  do  not  remember  anything  that  happened  after  becoming  ill.  Their 
pupils  were  widely  dilated,  the  iris  hardly  visible.  They  had  a  slow  weak 
pulse,  30  to  50  per  minute.  Vomiting  was  induced.  No  purging  occurred. 
The  facial  muscles  contracted  rapidly.  Their  eyelids  would  almost  snap 
with  eyeballs  protruding.  Eyes  turned  inwardly.  Extreme  cyanosis 
during  the  spasms.  Jaws  set  so  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to  force 
the  mouth  open  at  any  time.  Convulsions  almost  continuous,  both  tonic 
and  clonic.  All  the  muscles  were  rigid.  The  poisoning  resembled  that 
of  strychnin  to  some  extent.  Convulsions  ceased  in  Willard  and  Harold 
about  half  an  hour  after  becoming  ill.  Women  of  the  neighborhood  gave 
ipecac  with  milk  and  eggs  before  vomiting  began.  Chester's  spasms 
never  ceased  until  death.  Please  let  me  hear  from  you  at  your  earliest 
convenience.  I  hope  that  you  can  identify  the  plant  and  inform  me  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS   PLANTS  89 

kind  of  poison  it  contains."  An  account  of  this  case  was  published  in 
the  daily  press,  but  a  full  account,  somewhat  incorrect,  appeared  in  the 
Lancaster  Intelligencer  under  date  of  May  13,  1912,  with  the  heading 
"A  Death  Dealing  Plant.  Warning  to  Woodland  Wanderers  by  the 
State  Health  Department."  The  loss  of  stock  by  Cicuta  poisoning  has 
been  considerable  in  the  United  States,  although  the  data  is  inaccurate 
and  incomplete.  One  man  in  Oregon,  presumably  estimating  the  loss  in 
his  immediate  neighborhood,  makes  it  10  per  cent.  Slade,  1903,  esti- 
mates a  loss  of  a  hundred  cattle  a  year  in  Oregon.  Chestnut  and  Wilcox, 
1901,  say  that  in  1900  in  Montana  30  head  of  cattle  and  80  head  of  sheep 
were  lost. 

Poisonous  Principles. — If  one  cuts  open  the  rootstock  of  any  of  the 
species  of  Cicuta  drops  of  an  aromatic  oil  exude,  and  they  impart  a  peculiar 
odor  to  the  plant.  The  poisonous  principle  is  not  the  oil,  but  a  resin,  which 
has  been  isolated  as  cicutoxin.  It  has  been  studied  by  Boehm  (1875-76), 
Wikzemski  (1875)  and  Pohl  (1894).  It  has  been  found  to  have  properties 
similar  to  picrotoxin  and  with  these  two  toxicologists  usually  group 
coriamyrtin,  oenanthotoxin  and  santonin.  This  poisonous  principle, 
according  to  Kunkel  (1901),  is  a  clear,  brown,  sticky  resin  with  an  acid 
reaction  and  which  does  not  harden  when  dried.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol, 
chloroform,  ether  and  dilute  alkalis  and  is  precipitated  by  acids  from 
alkaline  solutions.  Injected  subcutaneously,  by  Wikzemski  in  1875  into 
frogs,  it  produced  clonic-toxic  convulsions  of  the  whole  body,  and  in 
doses  of  4  to  6  milligrams  of  the  ether  extract,  it  killed  the  frogs  with 
paralysis.  The  action  of  the  poison  is  limited  to  the  central  nervous 
system,  that  of  the  heart  and  organs  of  respiration  are  influenced  second- 
arily. The  principal  effect  of  cicutoxin  is  upon  the  "convulsion  center" 
at  the  end  of  the  medulla  oblongata.  The  upper  part  of  the  brain  is  not 
affected,  while  the  terminal  paralysis  of  the  spinal  cord  results  from  the 
complete  exhaustion  following  the  convulsions. 

Although  the  rootstocks  are  perhaps  the  most  virulent  parts  of  the 
plant,  yet,  the  leaves  stems  and  basal  parts  or  the  plant  contain  sufficient 
poison,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  to  produce  death.  The 
plant  is  probably  most  poisonous  in  the  spring,  when  the  Mulhollen  boys 
were  poisoned.  Where  the  soil  has  been  puddled  by  the  trampling  of 
cattle  in  the  swamps,  where  the  cowbane  grows,  the  resin  is  evidently 
freed  into  the  pools  of  water,  which  if  taken  by  the  animal  to  relieve  thirst 
produces  poisoning.  Gadd  as  early  as  1774  related  in  some  detail  a  case 
of  poisoning  of  cattle  from  drinking  water  in  which  were  Cicuta  roots. 


90  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Remedies.  The  older  authors  noticed  that  if  the  eating  of  cowbane 
was  followed  by  vomiting  the  patient  usually  recovered  (see  ante).  The 
logical  remedy,  therefore,  is  an  emetic.  When  the  convulsions  are 
violent  some  opiate  should  be  administered.  Chestnut  and  Wilcox 
recommended  hypodermic  injections  of  morphin  to  control  the  convul- 
sions, giving  sheep  i^  grams  and  cattle  and  horses  3  to  10  grams.  A 
purgative  would  doubtless  help  to  rid  the  system  of  the  poison. 

Poison  Hemlock  (Conium  maculatum). — The  poison  hemlock  is  the 
classical  poisonous  plant  naturalized  from  Europe  into  America,  where  it 
ranges  in  waste  places  from  Canada  to  Indiana,  California,  Utah  and  Mex- 
ico. It  is  an  erect,  much-branched  herb,  6-15  decimeters  tall.  Its  lower 
and  basal  leaves  are  petioled,  while  its  upper  are  usually  sessile.  All  of 
the  leave?  are  pinnately  dissected  into  ovate  leaflets  with  dentate  margin. 
The  umbels  are  broad  with  white  flowers.  Its  fruit  is  3  mm.  long  and  2 
mm.  wide  with  its  ribs  very  prominent  when  dry. 

Poisons. — The  plant  is  very  poisonous  containing  an  alkaloid  coniin 
(CsHirN),  which  is  volatile  in  vapor  of  alcohol,  or  water,  and  somewhat 
volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  has  an  alkaline  reaction  and  a 
burning  taste  and  causes  dilation  of  the  pupil.  Two  other  principal 
alkaloids  have  been  isolated:  Conicein  (CgHisN)  said  to  be  eighteen 
times  more  poisonous  than  coniin  and  conhydrin  (C8Hi7NO).  Fresh 
leaves  contain  0.095  Per  cent,  of  coniin  and  the  ripe  seed  0.7  per  cent. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  in  man  are  due  to  a  general  and  gradual 
weakening  of  the  muscular  power.  The  power  of  sight  is  often  lost, 
but  the  mind,  as  in  the  case  of  Socrates  quoted  below,  remains  clear  until 
death  ensues,  as  it  does  from  the  gradual  paralysis  of  the  lungs.  There 
are  no  convulsions.  Many  domestic  animals  have  been  killed  by  eating 
the  plant.  The  symptoms  for  cows  being  the  loss  of  appetite,  salivation, 
bloating,  much  bodily  pain,  loss  of  muscular  power,  and  rapid,  feeble 
pulse. 

Socrates  and  the  Plant.- — As  the  death  of  the  ancientGreek  philosopher 
Socrates  is  usually  associated  with  this  plant  the  following  account  is  of 
interest.  The  form  of  the  indictment  of  Socrates  was  as  follows :  Meletus, 
the  son  of  Meletus,  of  the  deme  Pitthis,  on  his  oath  brings  the  following 
accusation  against  Socrates,  the  son  of  Sophioniscus  of  the  deme  Alopece. 
Socrates  commits  a  crime  by  not  believing  in  the  gods  of  the  city  and  by 
introducing  other  new  divinities.  He  also  commits  a  crime  by  corrupting 
the  youth.  Penalty,  death.  He  is  condemned  by  a  vote  of  281  to  220. 


MISCELLANEOUS    DICOTYLEDONOUS    PLANTS  QI 

The  following  account  of  the  drinking  of  decoction  of  the  poison  hemlock 
and  the  last  conversations  of  the  philosopher  with  his  friends  is  taken  from 
the  last  part  of  the  Phaedo. 

Then  Crito  made  a  sign  to  his  slave,  who  was  standing  by,  and  the  slave 
went  out,  and  after  some  delay  returned  with  the  man  who  was  to  give 
the  poison,  carrying  it  prepared  in  a  cup.  When  Socrates  saw  him,  he 
asked,  "You  understand  these  things,  my  good  sir,  what  have  I  to  do?" 
•'You  have  only  to  drink  this,"  he  replied,  and  "to  walk  about  until  your 
legs  feel  heavy,  and  then  lie  down,  and  it  will  act  of  itself."  With  that 
he  handed  the  cup  to  Socrates,  who  took  it  quite  cheerfully.  Socrates, 
without  trembling,  and  without  any  change  of  color  of  feature,  looked 
up  at  the  man  with  that  fixed  glance  of  his  and  asked,  "what  say  you  to 
making  a  libation  from  this  draught?  May  I,  or  not?"  "We  only 
prepare  so  much  as  we  think  sufficient,  Socrates,"  he  answered.  "I 
understand  said  Socrates.  But  I  suppose  that  I  may,  and  must,  pray  to 
the  Gods  that  my  journey  hence  may  be  prosperous:  that  is  my  prayer 
be  it  so."  With  these  words  he  put  the  cup  to  his  lips  and  drank  the  poison 
quite  lively  and  cheerfully.  Till  then  most  of  us  had  been  able  to  con- 
trol our  grief  fairly  well;  but  when  we  saw  him  drinking,  and  then  the 
poison  finished,  we  could  do  so  no  longer:  my  tears  came  first  in  spite  of 
myself,  and  I  covered  my  face  and  wept  for  myself:  it  was  not  for  him, 
but  at  my  own  misfortune  in  losing  such  a  friend.  Even  before  that 
Crito  had  been  unable  to  restrain  his  tears  and  had  gone  away;  and 
Apollodorus,  who  had  never  once  ceased  weeping  the  whole  time,  burst 
into  a  loud  cry,  and  made  us  one  and  all  break  down  by  his  sobbing,  and 
grief,  except  only  Socrates  himself,  "what  are  you  doing,  my  friends"? 
he  exclaimed.  "I  sent  away  the  women  chiefly  in  order  that  they  might 
not  offend  in  this  way;  for  I  have  heard  that  a  man  should  die  in  silence. 
So  calm  yourselves  and  bear  up."  When  we  heard  that,  we  were  ashamed, 
and  we  ceased  from  weeping.  But  he  walked  about,  until  he  said  that  his 
legs  were  getting  heavy,  and  then  he  lay  down  on  his  back,  as  he  was  told. 
And  the  man  who  gave  the  poison  began  to  examine  his  feet  and  legs, 
from  time  to  time:  than  he  pressed  his  foot  hard,  and  asked  if  there  was 
any  feeling  in  it;  and  Socrates  said,  "  No: "  and  then  his  legs,  and  so  higher 
and  higher,  and  showed  us  that  he  was  cold  and  stiff.  And  Socrates  felt 
himself,  and  said  that  when  it  came  to  his  heart,  he  should  be  gone.  He 
was  already  growing  cold  about  the  groin,  when  he  uncovered  his  face, 
which  had  been  covered,  and  spoke  for  the  last  time.  "Crito,  he  said, 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


I  owe  a  cock  to  Asclepius:  do  not  forget  to  pay  it. "  "It  shall  be  done, " 
replied  Crito.  "Is  there  anything  else  that  you  wish?"  He  made  no 
answer  to  this  question;  but  after  a  short  interval  there  was  a  movement,  and 
the  man  uncovered  him,  and  his  eyes  were  fixed.  Then  Crito  closed  his 
mouth  and  his  eyes. 

"Such  was  the  end,  Eshrecrates,  of  our  friend,  a  man,  I  think,  who 

was  the  wisest  and  justest,  and  the 
best  man  that  I  have  ever  known. " 
Ericaceae. — This  family  includes 
a  number  of  shrubs  and  under 
shrubs  which  are  poisonous  to  stock. 
As  they  contain  essentially  the  same 
poisonous  principles,  although 
belonging  to  different  genera,  they 
are  described  botanically  first  and 
cases  of  poisoning  are  cited  after- 
wards. The  general  symptoms 
and  the  nature  of  the  toxic  principles 
are  discussed  also. 

Lamb  Kill,  Sheep-Laurel 
(Kalmia  angustifolia) .  This  is  an 
underbush  growing  18  inches  to  2 
feet  tall  with  opposite,  or  whorled, 
leaves,  dark-green  above,  light- 
green  beneath.  The  floweis  are 
purple,  or  crimson,  in  umbels  and 
the  capsular  fruit  is  persistent  in 
whorls  on  the  stems  for  a  number 

FIG.  36.— Fruiting  branch  .of  '  sheep  Qf  years  (Fig-  ^^  The  sheep. 
laurel  (Kalmia  angustifolia)  collected  at  ,  .  v  ,  •  / 

Mays  Landing,  N.  J.,  January  2,  1920.  laurel  is  found  in  dry  woods,  or  in 

Successive  whorls  of  fruits  are  shown  of  wet  so{\  from  Newfoundland  to 
different  ages.  TT  i  -r.  .  , 

Hudson  Bay,  south  to  Georgia  and 

Michigan.  It  is  common  in  the  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey  and  on  the 
barren  soils  of  the  Pocono  plateau  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  said  to  be  poisonous  to  sheep  and  calves, 
and  cases  of  men  being  poisoned  by  eating  the  flesh  of  partridges  which 
had  fed  on  the  buds  and  fruits  have  been  reported.  There  is  a  general 
belief  among  farmers  that  the  leaves  of  this  plant  are  poisonous  to  lambs 


•    MISCELLANEOUS    DICOTYLEDONOUS    PLANTS  93 

and  sheep,  hence  the  common  names,  but  direct  evidence  is  lacking  for 
this  plant  which  we  have  for  the  broad-leaved  species. 

Calico-bush,  Mountain-laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia).  This  is  a  shrub 
growing  4  to  8  feet  tall  and  with  broad,  evergreen,  dark-green,  lustrous 
leaves  and  a  large  umbel  of  white,  pink,  or  rose-pink  flowers  with  ten 


PIG.  37. — Mountain  laurel   (Kalmia  latifolia).     (After   The  Starrs   and    Harrison  Co. 
(Painesville,  Ohio)  Catalogue,  1913.) 

explosive  stamens  placed  in  pockets  of  the  cup-shaped  corolla  (Fig.  37). 
The  fruit  is  a  persistent  small  capsule  (Fig.  38). 

Many  cattle  and  sheep  are  poisoned  annually  by  eating  the  leaves  and 
tops  of  this  shrub.  On  Nov.  13,  1918,  the  writer  was  taken  by  Dr.  F. 
Boerner  to  see  a  herd  of  heifers  on  the  Percival  Roberts  farm  at  Narberth, 


94  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Penna.,  which  had  been  poisoned  by  eating  the  leaves  of  this  plant  grow- 
ing in  a  piece  of  woodland  into  which  the  heifers  had  been  turned  to  browse 
and  which  was  usually  closed  to  the  feeding  of  cattle.  All  of  the  heifers 
in  the  herd  were  poisoned,  but  when  the  writer  visited  it,  all  of  the  ani- 
mals, but  two,  had  partly  recovered  through  the  care  of  the  veterinarian 
in  charge,  Dr.  D.  S.  Deubler.  The  two  heifers.,  which  were  still  suffering 
from  the  poison  walked  about  with  unsteady  gait,  they  hung  their  heads 
low  and  showed  a  general  lack  of  activity  with  considerable  frothing  at 
the  mouth.  All  the  animals  of  this  herd  recovered. 

Another  case  was  of  a  number  of  educated  or  trained  goats  exhibited 
during  Christmas  week  in  the  Philadelphia  Dime  Museum,,  the  stage  of 


FIG.  38. — Fruiting  branch  of  laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia)  collected  at  Mays  Landing,  N.  J.. 
January  2,  1920. 

which  was  decorated  with  festoons  of  laurel  leaves.  Between  the  per- 
formances the  goats  roamed  over  the  stage  and  behind  the  scenes  partaking 
veiy  freely  of  the  attractive,  green  laurel  foliage.  Dr.  C.  J.  Marshall, 
then  out-surgeon  of  the  Veterinary  Hospital  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, was  called  on  the  evening  of  December  24,  1894  to  see  the  goats. 
Six  of  them  died  in  the  Veterinary  Hospital  from  the  effects  of  the  laurel 
poison.  Horses  have  died  from  eating  the  leaves,  and  in  May  1895,  a 
monkey  was  killed  at  the  National  Zoological  Park  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
by  eating  a  few  flowers  and  leaves  offered  to  it  by  a  visitor.  The  honey 
made  from  the  flowers  of  the  mountain-laurel  by  bees  is  said  to  be  poison- 
ous. Cases  of  poisoning  may  be  expected,  therefore,  from  time  to  time 
in  the  region  where  this  shrub  grows  which  is  from  Canada  to  Maine  and 
the  Allegheny  mountains  through  West  Florida,  Ohio,  Kentucky  and 


MISCELLANEOUS   DICOTYLEDONOUS   PLANTS  95 

Tennessee.  It  is  common  on  hill  slopes  in  the  Piedmont  region  west  of 
Philadelphia  and  in  the  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey. 

Stagger-bush  (Lyonia  (Andromeda)  mariana). — A  glabrous  shrub 
growing  about  two  feet  tall  with  deciduous,  oblong,  or  oval  leaves.  The 
flowers  are  white,  or  cream-colored,  urn-shaped  and  produced  in  nodding 
fascicles  before  the  leaves  are  fully  developed.  The  capsules  are  grayish 
and  persistent  for  some  time.  The  stagger-bush  occurs  in  low  grounds 
-from  Rhode  Island  to  Florida,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  Sheep  have  been 
poisoned  and  killed  by  eating  the  tops  and  foliage  of  this  plant,  which 
gets  its  name,  because  of  the  intoxication!  of  sheep  and  cattle  by  eating  it. 

Rose  Bay,  or  Great  Laurel  (Rhododendron  maximum). — The  great 
laurel  is  a  tall  shrub,  or  small  tree  forming  thickets  in  the  hilly  and 
mountainous  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States  from  Maine  to  Ohio  and 
south  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia.  It  has  large  evergreen  leaves 
which  being  sensitive  to  cold  below  2o°F.  turn  down  and  incurl  during 
the  coldest  days  of  winter.  The  flowers  are  large,  bell  shaped,  produced 
in  short  racemes  from  scaly  large  winter  flower  buds.  This  species  and 
several  other  species,  as  R.  californicum  R.  catawbiense,  are  poisonous 
to  stock.  Cases  of  death  of  goats  in  the  Himalaya  mountains  of  India 
are  recorded  from  eating  the  leaves  of  Rhododendron  cinnabarinum, 

General  Considerations. — All  of  the  above  described  ericaceous  plants 
contain  the  substance  andromedotoxin  CsiHsoOio,  a  bitter  glucoside 
more  poisonous  than  aconitin,  and  more  emetic  than  emetin.  It  is  a 
narcotic  poison. 

In  the  case  of  goats  the  symptoms  are  intense  pain,  diarrhoea,  dis- 
comfort, gritting  of  the  teeth,  salivation  and  frequently  vomiting,  while 
there  is  trembling,  spasms,  vertigo,  loss  of  power  and  death.  Lander  and 
others  report  somewhat  similar  symptoms  in  cattle  that  have  eaten  freely 
of  any  of  the  above  shrubs. 

Chinese  Primrose  (Primula  obconica). — This  plant  is  a  native  of 
China,  but  is  cultivated  in  greenhouses  and  out  of  doors  in  summer  in 
this  country  and  Europe.  Its  leaves  are  all  radical  and  cordate  and 
covered  with  glandular  hairs.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  umbels  at  the 
top  of  a  slender  scape  6-12  inches  long.  The  glandular  hairs"  form  a  drop 
of  poison  containing  embelia  acid,  CyHaC^OH^CuHas,  which  is  an 
irritant  causing  eruptions  on  the  skin  of  susceptible  persons,  similar  to 
those  produced  by  poison  ivy.  The  susceptible  persons  suffer  from  an 
eczematous  inflammation  of  the  hands  and  face,  and  apparently  there  is 


96  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

a  recurrence  of  the  inflammation  after  some  time.  Mr.  Thomas  Meehan 
describes  a  person,  who  after  potting  a  lot  of  Primula  obconica  had  his 
face  so  swollen  that  he  remained  completely  blind  for  a  day. 

Privet  (Ligustrum  vulgar  e). — The  privet  and  several  other  species  of 
Ligustrum  are  used  commonly  as  hedge  plants,  for  which  purpose  they  are 
very  suitable.  The  oval  leaves  are  opposite  and  remain  green  well  into 
the  winter.  Cases  of  poisoning  of  children,  who  have  eaten  the  fruits, 
are  recorded  causing  violent  purging,  a  boy  and  a  girl  having  died.  Horses 
are  poisoned  and  killed,  the  symptoms  being  a  loss  of  power  in  the  hind 
limbs  with  a  weak  and  reduced  pulse  and  a  temperature  of  io2°F. 
The  mucous  membranes  are  injected,  slightly,  the  pupils  are  dilated  and 
death  results  in  36  to  48  hours. 

The  poisonous  principles  are  the  glucosides  ligustrin  and  ligustron 
together  with  syringin  CnH^Og  and  the  bitter  glucosidal  principle 
syringopicrin,  C^HziOn-  These  also  occur  in  the  lilac,  Syringa  vulgaris. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ANON.:  Poisoning  by  Primroses.  Scientific  American,  Supplement  83:  411,  June 
30,  1917. 

CHESTNUT,  V.  K. :  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants.  Farmers'  Bulletin  86,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  1898,  pages  23-29. 

CRAWFORD,  ALBERT  C.:  Mountain  Laurel,  a  Poisonous  Plant.  Bulletin  121,  Part  II, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1908. 

HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W.:  Poisonous  Plants.  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture, 
second  edition,  vi,  2728-2729. 

LONG,  HAROLD  C.:  Plants  Poisonous  to  Live  Stock.  Cambridge  at  the  University 
Press,  1917,  pages  36-42,  46-49. 

LUTZ,  O. :  Poisonous  Nature  of  the  Stinging  Hairs  of  Jatropha  urens.  Science  News, 
40,  609. 

MARSH,  C.  D WIGHT:  Menziesia,  a  New  Stock-poisoning  Plant  of  the  Northwestern 
States.  Drug  and  Poisonous  Plant  Investigations.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Preliminary  Notice,  June  10,  1914. 

MARSH,  C.  DWIGHT,  CLAWSON,  A.  B.  and  MARSH,  HADLEIGH:  Cicuta  or  Water  Hem- 
lock. Bulletin  69,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  March  28,  1914. 

NESTLER,  A.:  Plants  Venomous  to  Touch.  Scientific  American  Supplement  75:  68, 
February  i,  1913. 

PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.     Part  2,  1911,  pages  645-679. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

i.  The  class  should  describe  by  use  of  the  outline  given  on  page  54  the  various 
plants  described  in  this  chapter,  either  as  alcoholic,  dried,  or  fresh  specimens.  With 


MISCELLANEOUS  DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS  97 

selections  and  substitutions  of  plants,  the  contents  of  this  chapter  are  of  world-wide 
applicability. 

2.  The  members  of  the  class  in  botany  should  make  the  test  for  coniin  as  follows: 
Concentrated    sulphuric  acid  colors  coniin  blood-red,  the  color  gradually  changing  to 
green.  Potassium-cadmium  iodide  causes  an  amorphous  precipitate  of  coniin,  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  latter  from  nicotin,  yielding  a  crystalline  precipitate. 

3.  Study  of  sublimable  principles.     See  for  details  KRAEMER,  HENRY:  Applied  and 
Economic  Botany,  1914:  173-176     Quite  a  number  of  plant  principles  are  capable  of 
being  sublimed.  Not  only  is  this  true,  when  they  are  in  the  pure  state,  but  also  when 
they  are  associated  with  other  compounds  in  the  plant  cell.     This  fact  is  of  interest  in 
the  examination  of  poisonous  plants.     The  procedure  is  simple,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  material  (0.020  to  0.050  gram)  is  required.     In  the  study  of  flowers,  a  small  piece  10 
square  millimeters  is  all  that  is  required.     The  material  is  dried,  and  hence,  the  use- 
fulness of  the  dried  plants  for  laboratory  study.     The  dried  material  is  cut  up,  or 
comminuted  and  placed  in  a  small  watch  crystal,  which  is  covered  with  a  slide,  or 
another  watch  crystal,  for  the  deposition  of  the  sublimate.     The  watch  crystal  con- 
taining the  material  is  carefully  heated  on  a  sand  bath,  or  on  a  bath  containing  sul- 
phuric acid.     The  method  is  peculiarly  suited  for  the  study  of  the  principles  in  the 
ericaceous  plants.     Tunman  (Berichte  der  Deutsche  Pharmaceutische  Gesellschaft, 
1911, 312)  examined  some  of  the  Ericaceae  by  the  microsublimation  method  and  found 
that  they  contained  arbutin.     The  latter  is  a  widely  distributed  glucoside  in  the 
family  and  yields  upon  treatment  with  solutions  of  emulsin,  or  hydrochloric  acid, 
the  sublimable  principle  hydrochinon.     The  latter  forms  prisms  and  plates  and  may 
be  examined  further  with  acetone  solution,  dilute  solutions  of  ferric  chloride  and  water. 
Arbutin  occurs  in  the  leaves  of  Arctostaphylos  Uva-ursi,  Vaccinium  myrtillus,  Kalmia 
angustifolia  (see  ante),  Pyrola  rotundifolia  and  species  of  Rhododendron.     This  method 
can  be  used  for  the  study  of  the  sublimable  principles  in  stramonium,  podophyllin. 


CHAPTER  9 
PRINCIPALLY  SOLANACEOUS  AND  COMPOSITOUS  PLANTS 

Oleander  (Nerium  oleander}. — The  oleander  is  an  old  fashioned  shrub 
grown  in  tubs  inside  of  houses  in  north  temperate  regions,  but  in  the  open 
in  the  southern  and  southwestern  United  States,  in  southern  Europe  and 
in  the  Bermuda  islands,  where  it  is  a  mass  of  color  during  the  month  of 
June  and  even  later  in  July.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  countries 
of  Europe  also  in  Persia,  Japan  and  the  East  Indies.  The  writer  has 
noticed  three  varieties  in  Bermuda,  the  white-flowered,  the  pink-flowered 
and  the  rose-red  variety.  The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  leathery  with  the 
stomata  depressed  in  pits  protected  by  hairs  on  their  under  surface. 

Cases  and  Symptoms. — Five  soldiers  were  poisoned  by  stirring  a  pot  of 
barley  soup  with  an  oleander  branch.  Vomiting  occurred.  In  one  case, 
there  was  dizziness  and  abdominal  pain;  in  another,  dulling  of  the  senses 
and  insensibility  to  external  pressure.  Three  hundred  French  soldiers 
in  the  army  corps  of  Marshal  Suchet  in  Catalonia  became  sick  after  eating 
roasted  meat  fastened  together  with  skewers  made  of  oleander  sticks. 
A  number  of  these  soldiers  died.  A  cow  and  two  goats  were  poisoned 
with  oleander  leaves  given  with  the  other  feed.  The  symptoms  noted 
were  coldness  of  the  nose  and  extremities,  maiked  tremors  in  the  posterior 
extremities  and  cramp-like  contractions  of  all  the  muscles.  The  goats 
passed  into  a  general  paralytic  condition  and  died  in  about  eleven  hours, 
while  the  cow  died  paralyzed  twenty  four  hours  after  eating  the  leaves. 
The  Arizona  Experiment  Station  records  a  considerable  number  of  cases 
of  poisoning  of  horses  about  Phoenix  and  in  other  parts  of  the  state.  •  A 
fine  team  of  draft  horses  were  lost  by  eating  oleander  leaves.  Experiments 
conducted  by  this  station  with  cows,  horses,  lambs  and  mules  amply 
demonstrate  the  poisonous  character  of  the  shrub. 

The  amount  of  oleander  necessary  to  cause  death  in  horses  ranges  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  grams  of  green  leaves  and  from  fifteen  to  thirty  grams. 
of  dry  leaves.  The  fatal  dose  for  cows  is  from  ten  to  twenty  grams  of 
green  leaves  and  fifteen  to  twenty-five  grams  of  dried  leaves.  The  fatal 
amount  of  green  or  dry  leaves  for  a  sheep  is  one  to  five  grams. 

Q8 


PRINCIPALLY    SOLANACEOUS    AND    COMPOSITOUS   PLANTS  99 

The  symptoms,  as  given  in  the  Arizona  bulletin,  are  increased  tem- 
perature and  pulse,  as  indicated  by  the  graphs  in  the  experimental  portion 
of  the  report,  dilation  of  the  pupils  of  the  eyes,  discoloration  of  the 
mouth  and  nostrils,  followed  by  a  sore  mouth.  The  body  becomes  wet 
with  perspiration,  the  animal  refuses  to  eat  or  drink.  The  fecal  discharges 
are  frequent  and  of  a  greenish  color.  The  heart  is  powerfully  stimulated 
and  the  action  of  the  kidneys  is  increased  slightly  and  the  color  of  the 
urine  is  normal. 

Remedies. — There  is  little  or  nothing  that  can  be  done  in  cases  of 
oleander  poisoning  except  the  administration  of  an  emetic  in  the  case  of 
human  beings.  Emetics  do  little  good  with  the  lower  animals.  The 
physician  should  combat  the  human  symptoms,  as  they  arise,  remember- 
ing that  oleander  poisoning  is  practically  identical  with  that  produced 
by  digitalis. 

Active  Principles. — Three  active  principles  all  of  them  glucosides 
reside  in  oleander.  Oleandrin  as  an  amorphous  mass  showing  the  charac- 
teristics of  digitalin  is  the  most  important.  Neriin  and  nerianthin  are  the 
remaining  two  and  have  much  less  marked  poisonous  properties. 

Whorled  Milkweed  (Asclepias  verticillata). — The  whorled  milk- weed 
has  only  lately  come  into  prominence  as  a  poisonous  plant  in  portions  of 
Colorado.  The  plant  has  angled  stems,  narrowly  linear  leaves  in  whorls 
of  two  to  four  and  greenish  flowers  tinged  with  purple  of  the  usual  milk 
weed  type.  The  plant  is  distributed  from  Maine  to  Florida  to  Texas  to 
Mexico  and  Arizona.  The  writer  has  found  it  on  the  Hempstead  Plain  in 
western  Long  Island. 

A  sheepman  near  Colona,  Colorado  lost  eighty-five  head  of  lambs  which 
he  had  turned  into  his  orchard  after  they  were  brought  down  from  the 
range.  The  only  poisonous  plant  in  the  orchard  was  the  whorled  milk- 
weed. In  the  fall  of  1916,  a  loss  of  750  sheep  out  of  a  flock  of  1400  was 
reported  from  Cortez,  Colorado.  An  examination  of  the  stomach  contents 
was  made  by  the  Colorado  station  which  showed  that  the  sheep  had  eaten 
practically  nothing  but  milkweed.  Grazing  on  the  young  plants,  as 
early,  as  June  and  throughout  the  summer  months  has  proved  disastrous. 

Solanaceae. — This  family  contains  a  number  of  plants  which  are 
celebrated  as  poisonous  plants  yielding,  however,  things  of  great  medicinal 
importance.  The  belladonna  (Atropa  Belladonna),  is  one  of  the  most 
important  drug  plants  of  this  family,  also  poisonous.  Hyoscyamus, 
Scapola,  Datura,  and  Mandragora  are  others. 


100  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Thorn  Apple  (Datura  Stramonium  and  D.  T alula), — The  Jamestown 
Weed,  or  Jimson  Weed,  is  a  tall,  much-branched  annual  with  broadly, 
ovate,  shallowly  lobed  leaves  and  single,  plaited,  trumpet-shaped  flowers, 
either  white  (D.  Stramonium)  or  purple  in  color  (D.  Tatula).  The  fruit  is 
a  prickly  imperfectly,  four-celled  capsule  with  sphericidal  blackish-brown 
seeds. 

Cases. — The  writer's  earliest  acquaintance  with  poisonous  plants 
was  with  this  plant  and  poison  ivy.  While  a  lad  about  twelve  years  old, 
three  children  of  the  neighborhood  were  brought  into  his  father's  drug 
store  having  eaten  the  seeds  of  the  Jimson  weed.  They  were  all  suffering 
from  the  effects  of  the  poison.  Emetics  were  administered  and  the  writer's 
father  took  all  three  children  out  into  the  back  yard  and  compelled 
them  to  run  about  by  whipping  the  calves  of  their  legs  with  a  carriage  whip 
,  until  they  broke  into  a  prof  use  perspiration.  He  succeeded  in  saving  their 
lives  by  this  and  other  heroic  treatment.  Many  cases  have  been  recorded 
of  poisoning  by  these  plants.  The  Philadelphia  Ledger  of  October  12, 
1909  gives  this  account  of  poisoning  "A  verdict  of  death  by  accidental 
poisoning  by  eating  seeds  of  stramonium,  or  jimson-weed  plant  was  found 
by,  a  coroner's  jury  yesterday  in  the  case  of  Martha  Robinson,  3  years  old 
daughtei  of  Reseive  Policeman  James  Robinson.  The  testimony  showed 
that  Maitha  and  her  little  friend,  Helen  Bradley,  attracted  by  the  cur- 
iously shaped  seed  pods  of  the  weed  growing  on  a  lot  at  55th  and  Paschal 
Avenue,  where  they  were  playing,  had  broken  several  of  them  open  and 
had  eaten  the  seeds.  Both  children  became  sick  and  went  home  where 
antidotes  were  administered  to  them,  but  failed  to  overcome  the  toxic 
effects  in  the  case  of  Martha  Robinson,  who  died  in  agony.  Helen 
Bradley  was  apparently  on  the  load  to  recovery  yesterday,  but  her  con- 
dition at  tunes  was  extremely  critical." 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  about  the  same  in  all 
cases.  Large  doses  produce  headache,  vertigo,  nausea,  extreme  thirst, 
dry,  burning  skin  and  general  nervous  confusion,  with  dilated  pupils,  loss 
of  sight  and  of  voluntary  motion,  sometimes  with  many  convulsions  and 
death.  Smaller  doses  act  like  ordinary  narcotics.  Emetics  should  be 
administered  and  the  stomach  washed  out  with  tea,  tannic  acid,  or  an 
infusion  of  oak  baik,  if  in  the  country.  Pilocarpin  is  recommended  by 
physicians  to  counteract  the  drying  effect  upon  the  secretions  and  pro- 
longed artificial  respiration  must  be  used  to  maintain  the  aeration  of  the 
blood. 


PRINCIPALLY    SOLAN ACEOUS    AND    COMPOSITOUS    PLANTS         IOI 

Poisons. — The  thorn  apple  contains  two  poisonous  alkaloids  hyos- 
cyamin  (CnH^sOsN)  and  atropin  (CnH^sOsN)  together  with  scopolamin, 
or  hyoscin  (Ci7H2iO4N).  The  principal  substance  is  hyoscyamin.  The 
true  alkaloids  together  occur  to  the  extent  of  0.48  to  3.33  per  cent,  in  the 
leaves,  0.43  per  cent,  hi  the  flowers  and  in  the  root  o.i  per  cent.  Daturin 
was  formerly  believed  to  be  in  the  plant,  but  it  has  been  proved  to  be  a 
mixture  of  hyoscyamin  and  of  atropir-. 

Bittersweet  (Solanum  dulcamara). — The  bittersweet  is  a  climbing 
plant  producing  purple  flowers  with  rotate  corollas  followed  by  a  bright-red, 
ellipsoidal  berry.  There  is  considerable  divergence  of  opinion  about  the 
poisonous  properties  of  this  plant,  some  denying  that  the  fruit  is  poison- 
ous. Dr.  S.  C.  Schmucker  thinks  that  the  berry  fruit  is  harmless  provided 
the  seeds  are  removed  before  it  is  eaten.  Perhaps  this  explains  the  dis- 
crepancies in  the  statements  about  the  use  of  the  berry  as  food.  However, 
the  plant  contains  the  toxic  alkaloid  found  in  other  species  of  Solanum  and 
Gillam  reports  a  case  of  poisoning  in  sheep  and  the  writer  has  heard  of  the 
poisoning  of  children  on  Long  Island  by  eating  the  fruit.  The  symptoms 
as  recorded  by  Gillam  in  the  case  of  the  sheep  mentioned  above  were 
small,  intermittent  pulse,  temperature  io4°F,  quickened  respiration, 
staggering  gait,  dilation  of  pupils  and  green  bowel  discharges.  The 
symptoms  seem  to  be  the  same  in  the  poisoning  of  cattle. 

Garden  Nightshade  (Solanum  nigrum). — The  black  nightshade  is  a 
smooth  annual  growing  one  to  two  feet  high  with  ovate  leaves  having 
wavy  margins.  There  are  drooping  clusters  of  small,  white  flowers  and 
black,  globose,  juicy  berries,  which  ripen  from  July  to  October.  It  is 
a  common  introduced  weed  in  rich,  shaded  grounds  and  fields  east  of 
South  Dakota  and  Arkansas  and  in  damp  places  westward  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

The  amount  of  poison  in  this  plant  varies  with  the  conditions  of  growth. 
The  plants  with  the  musky  odor  are  the  most  poisonous.  Children  have 
been  poisoned  by  eating  the  berries,  but  occasionally  owing  probably  to  a 
variation  in  the  poisonous  content  of  the  berries  children  may  eat  them 
with  no  other  ill  effect  than  a  pain  in  the  stomach.  Chestnut  and  Wilcox 
record  cases  of  poisoning  in  calves,  sheep,  goats  and  pigs.  The  character- 
istics symptoms  are  about  the  same  in  animals  and  in  man.  They  are 
stupefaction,  staggering,  loss  of  speech,  feeling  and  consciousness,  cramps, 
i  and  occasionally  convulsions.  The  pupils  show  dilation.  Paralysis  is 
usually  the  cause  of  death. 


102  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Potato  (Solatium  tuberosum). — Although  the  potato  plant  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  principal  food  plants  of  the  human  race,  yet  there  are 
parts  of  the  plant  which  are  poisonous,  and  there  are  conditions  in  which 
the  tubers  develop  poisonous  properties.  The  tops  of  the  plants  stems 
and  leaves  are  poisonous  containing  the  active  principle.  Even  the  tubers 
which  are  eaten  with  impunity  by  the  majority  of  people  may  be  injurious 
to  some  persons  with  a  susceptible  idiosyncrasy.  Again  when  tubers  are 
stored  in  a  damp  cellar  to  which  sunlight  has  access,  they  may  develop  a 
green  color.  Such  greened  tubers  and  the  tubers  from  which  young  shoots 
have  sprung  develop  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  tops  and  have  been 
the  cause  of  accidental  poisoning.  Macfadyen  has  shown  that  old 
sprouted  potatoes,  even  after  boiling,  are  poisonous  to  horses.  Two  cows 
became  ill  after  eating  potato  parings,  as  they  contain  more  of  the  toxic 
principle  than  the  "flesh." 

Poisonous  Substances. — The  three  above  mentioned  species  of  the 
genus  Solatium,  as  well,  as  other  species  of  the  genus  contain  an  alkaloid 
solanin  (C52H93NOi8)  having  a  hot,  bitter  taste.  Solatium  [dulcamara 
the  bittersweet  contains  in  addition  dulcamin,  which  gives  it  its  peculiar, 
bitter-sweet  taste.  The  black  night  shade  contains  also  solanidin  (€40- 
H61NO2)  with  strong  basic  properties. 

Sneeze-weed  (Heleniumautumnale). — A  perennial  herb  with  smooth, 
or  puberulent,  stem  6  to  18  decimenters  high.  The  leaves  are  firm, 
sharp-pointed  with  decurrent,  sessile  bases.  The  heads  are  numerous 
3-5  centimeters  broad  borne  on  long  peduncles.  The  ray  flowers  are 
blight-yellow,  3-cleft  and  drooping,  ten  to  eighteen  in  number.  The 
disk-flowers  are  perfect,  fertile  and  yellow  in  color.  The  achenes  are 
pubescent  on  the  angles,  while  the  pappus  scales  are  ovate,  sharp-pointed, 
or  toothed.  The  swamp  sunflower,  or  yellow  star,  is  found  in  swamps 
and  wet  meadows  from  Quebec  to  Connecticut,  Florida,  South  Dakota, 
Kansas  and  Alabama.  It  occurs  in  the  Rocky  mountains  from  Wyom- 
ing to  Montana  in  a  variety  grandiflorum.  It  is  in  flower  from  August  until 
October.  Its  common  name  refers  to  the  sneezing  of  which  it  produces, 
a  fact  known  to  the  Winnebago  Indians,  who  used  it  for  that  purpose. 

Symptoms. — Sheep,  cattle  and  horses,  that  are  unfamiliar  with  the 
plant  which  is  more  or  less  bitter,  acrid  and  pungent,  are  often  poisoned 
by  it  when  driven  to  pastures  where  it  is  abundant.  As  a  rule,  because 
of  the  above-mentioned  qualities,  animals  avoid  it,  but  they  sometimes 
acquire  a  taste  for  it  and  are  quickly  killed  by  eating  it  in  large  amounts. 


PRINCIPALLY    SOLANACEOUS    AND    COMPOSITOUS    PLANTS 


I03 


Little  is  known  about  the  poisonous  principle  in  the  plant,  but  it  appar- 
ently is  found  in  largest  amount  in  the  flowers.  The  symptoms,  as  deter- 
mined in  Mississippi  by  an  observation  of  calves,  are  an  accelerated  pulse, 
difficult  breathing,  staggering  and  extreme  sensitiveness  to  touch.  Death 
is  preceded  in  fatal  cases  by  spasms  and  convulsions.  The  spasms  in 


FIG.  39. — Flowering  branch  of  white  snakeroot (E upatorium  urticcRfolium) .  (After 
Crawford,  Albert  C.:  The  Supposed  Relationship  of  White  Snakeroot  to  Milk  Sickness,  or 
Trembles.  Bull.  121,  Part  i,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Plate  i.) 

several  cases  with  sheep  are  epileptiform,  yet  a  sheep  may  have  such 
violent  convulsions  and  yet  recover  without  treatment,  but  they  may 
acquire  a  mania  for  it  after  having  been  poisoned.  The  horse  and  mule 
succumb  to  the  injurious  effects  of  the  toxic  substance  quicker  and  more 
completely  than  other  animals.  The  influence  of  the  poison  appears 


104 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


soon  after  ingestion  and  with  violence.  The  horse  is  unable  to  control 
his  motions,  plunges  about  blindly,  falls  dead,  or  breaks  his  neck  in  falling 
forward  with  the  head  under  the  body.  A  pint  or  two  of  melted  lard 
poured  down  the  animals  throat  has  proved  an  effective  antidote,  but  it 
must  be  administered  before  the  horse  loses  control  of  his  limbs.  The 
lard  probably  acts  as  a  local  emollient  relieving  the  burning  in  the  throat 
and  stomach  and  hence  allays  the  violent  reflexes. 


FIG.  40. — Clump  of  white  snakeroot  (Eupatorium  urticaefolium)  in  yard  of  vacant 
house  at  4ist  and  Baltimore  Avenue,  Philadelphia,  October  9,  1919. 

Helenium  tenuifolium,  the  fine-leaved  sneeze- weed,  is  often  the 
cause  of  bitter  milk  in  the  south  and  in  the  Gulf  states.  It  is  fatal  to 
horses  and  mules. 

White  Snakeroot  (Eupatorium  urlicaefolium  =  E.  ageratoides}. — The 
plant  has  perennial  roots  and  varies  in  height  from  one  to  five  feet  being 
more  or  less  branched.  The  leaves  are  opposite,  ovate,  slightly  cordate 
with  long  pedicles,  and  are  strongly  3-ribbed.  The  margin  is  sharply 
and  coarsely  serrate  (Fig.  39).  The  heads  are  small  but  crowded  in  dense 
clusters  with  a  number  of  white  florets  to  each  head.  The  involucre  is 
narrowly  bell-shaped  consisting  of  linear,  ovate  bracts.  The  achenes  are 


PRINCIPALLY   SOLANACEOUS   AND   COMPOSITOUS   PLANTS        105 

smooth.  This  species  of  Eupatorium  has  been  collected  in'  Ontario, 
Maine,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska 
Oklahoma  and  Kentucky  (Fig.  40). 

Disease. — It  is  conceded  by  the  latest  evidence  that  this  plant  is  the 
cause  of  a  disease  known  as  trembles  in  cattle,  or  milk  sickness  in  man. 
The  name  "tires  and  slows,"  employed  by  Howard  (1871),  Logan  (1849") 
and  Byford  (1855),  is  used  in  some  sections  and  there  are  other  names, 
such  as  swamp  sickness,  river  fever,  puking  fever,  stiff  joints,  colica 
trementia,  morbeo  lacteo,  ergodeleteria,  gastritis,  gastro-enteritis,  muko- 
soma,  syro,  caconemia  and  paralysis  intestinalis. 

Symptoms. — The  first  sign  of  the  disease  in  cattle  is  a  listlessness  and 
disinclination  to  move  with  muscular  weakness  and  trembling,  especially 
when  the  animal  is  driven.  Such  animals,  too,  are  generally  constipated, 
are  greatly  excited  and  are  disposed  to  fight.  The  characteristic  stage 
of  trembling  is  marked  also  by  stiff  joints.  The  animal  may  sink  to  the  % 
ground  showing  great  weakness  and  exhaustion,  and  may  remain  on  the 
spot  where  it  has  fallen.  Animals  in  this  stage  may  recover,  but  more 
often  die.  Violent  exercise  causes  the  dormant  poison  to  become  active, 
and  this  is  especially  noticeable  when  cattle,  which  have  been  fattened 
for  market,  are  driven  from  the  infected  localities  showing  marked  trem- 
bling, while  those  that  remain  at  home  remain  healthy.  The  breath  of 
such  animals  has  a  foul  odor  described  as  " garlicky,"  "like  chloroform 
liniment"  and  "mildly  like  acetone,"  "singularly  fetid,"  "pungent  and 
corrosive." 

With  sheep  the  onset  of  the  disease  is  a  loss  of  appetite  and  a  gritting 
of  the  teeth.  Such  animals  are  sluggish  and  manifest  a  marked  disinclina- 
tion to  move.  They  remain  standing  in  a  droopy  posture  (Fig.  41).  Res- 
piration is  accelerated,  often  jerky  and  somewhat  labored.  A  marked 
stiffness  of  the  legs  and  ataxia  characterize  the  movements  in  walking. 
This  is  shown  early  and  becomes  aggravated  as  time  passes.  If  after  a 
day  or  two  the  animal  is  forced  to  rise  and  is  driven  a  few  yards,  muscular 
spasm,  especially  in  the  limbs,  is  evident.  The  sheep  then  refuses  to 
move,  stands  with  hind  limbs  placed  well  under  the  body  and  all  feet 
spread  apart  laterally.  The  back  is  arched,  the  neck  is  stretched  and  the 
head  lowered  (Fig.  42).  Quivering  then  spreads  from  the  limbs  over  the 
entire  body  becoming  more  intense  until  it  becomes  an  involitional  tremor, 


io6 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


followed  by  slight,  intermittent  tetanic  contractions.  At  this  stage  of 
trembling,  ataxia  is  pronounced  and  the  animal  is  unable  to  stand.  It 
drops  to  the  ground  with  its  head  and  neck  outstretched  and  jaw  close  to 
the  ground  (Fig.  43).  Trembling  is  repeated  every  time  the  animal  is 
made  to  rise.  The  animal  becomes  comatose  after  the  second  or  third 
day  and  may  lie  prostrate  on  its  side  until  death  occurs.  The  symptoms 
of  trembles  in  hogs  are  in  general  like  those  in  sheep  (Figs.  44  and  45). 


FIG.  41. — Ewe  161  in  a  characteristic  posture  when  the  tremors  following  the  eat- 
ing of  white  snakeroot  (Eupatorium  urticafolium)-  have  become  acute.  The  animal 
has  spread  its  feet  apart  to  remain  standing.  (After  Wolf,  F.  A.,  Curtis,  R.  S.  and 
Kaupp,  B.  F.:  A  Monograph  on  Trembles  or  Milk  Sickness  and  White  Snakeroot. 
Technical  Bulletin  15,  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  July,  1918,  Plate 
2,Fig.B.)  • 

The  onset  of  milk  sickness  in  man  is  gradual,  and  after  a  day  or  two  of 
weakness  and  debility  accompanied  by  loss  of  appetite,  the  patient  is 
seized  with  epigastric  distress.  Violent  vomiting  follows,  associated  with 
obstinate  constipation  with  great  thirst.  Abdominal  pain  is  noteworthy 
and  muscular  tremors  are  generally  present.  The  foul  odor  of  the  breath 
is  characteristic.  The  tongue  is  swollen.  Respiration  is  normal,  but  the 
temperatures  is  subnormal  (97°  to  98°).  Severe  cases  show  typhoid 
symptoms  with  delirium.  Coma  precedes  death,  which  may  come  as 


PRINCIPALLY    SOLANACEOUS    AND    COMPOSITOUS    PLANTS       107 


PIG.  42. — -Ewe  161  a  few  seconds  subsequent  to  stage  in  preceding  figure.  The 
animal  is  beginning  to  drop  down  to  a  resting  posture.  (After  Wolf,  J.  A.,  Curtis,  R.  S. 
and  Kaupp,  B.  F.:  A  Monograph  on  Trembles  or  Milk  Sickness  and  White  Snakeroot. 
Technical  Bulletin  15,  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  July,  1918, 
Plate  3,  Fig.  C.) 


FIG.  43. — Ewe  12  in  resting  posture  commonly  assumed  by  affected  animals.  The 
same  evidences  of  stupor  are  present,  but  the  head  and  neck  are  extended.  (After  Wolf, 
F.  A.,  Curtis,  R.  S.  and  Kaupp,  B.  F.:  A  Monograph  on  Trembles  or  Milk  Sickness  and 
White  Snakeroot.  Technical  Bulletin  15,  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  July,  1918,  Plate  4,  Fig.  E.) 


io8 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


early  as  two  days  after  the  onset  of  the  preliminary  symptons.     Lasting 
debility  appears  to  be  a  common  sequel  of  recovery.     The  mortality  in 


FIG.  44. — A  pig  in  which  the  tremors  due  to  eating  white  snakeroot  have  become 
so  violent  that  the  animal  has  settled  backward  upon  her  haunches  and  is  squealing. 
(After  Wolf,  F.  A.,  Curtis,  R.  S.  and  Kaupp,  B.  F.:  A  Monograph  on  Trembles  or  Milk 
Sickness  and  White  Snakeroot.  Technical  Bulletin  15,  North  Carolina  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  July,  1918,  Plate  6,  Fig.  J.) 


FIG.  45. — A  pig  which  has  assumed  the  resting  posture  from  the  position  shown  in 
the  preceding  figure.  (After  Wolf,  F.  A.,  Curtis,  R.  S.  and  Kaupp,  B.  F.:  A  Monograph 
on  Trembles  or  Milk  Sickness  and  White  Snakeroot.  Technical  Bulletin  15,  North  Caro- 
lina Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Julv.  1918,  Plate  7,  Fig.  K. 

men,  who  have  had  milk  sickness,  is  approximately  24  per  cent,  for  out  of 
320  reported  cases,  77  persons  died.    No  particular  difficulty  need  be 


PRINCIPALLY   SOLANACEOUS    AND   COMPOSITOUS   PLANTS         109 

encountered  in  explaining  the  excretion  of  the  poisonous  principle  in  the 
milk  for  milk  acquires  tastes  and  flavors  from  the  feed  of  animals.  The 
medical  practitioner  well  knows  that  such  substances  as  opium,  morphin 
and  atropin  may  pass  into  the  mother's  milk  and  act  on  the  nursing  child. 
We  have  seen  how  the  active  principle  of  mayapple  is  thus  secreted  in 
cow's  milk.  Notably  do  organic  substances  pass  into  the  milk,  but  many 
inorganic  substances,  such  as,  arsenic,  iodine,  bismuth,  etc.,  are  secreted. 

Cause  of  Disease. — Numerous  papers  have  been  written  discussing 
the  cause  of  the  disease.  These  theories  may  be  classified,  as  follows:  (a) 
mineral  poison  theory,  the  ingestion  of  something  from  the  soil  or  water; 
(b)  the  germ,  or  microbic  theory;  (c)  the  poisonous  plant  theory.  All 
the  weight  of  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the  latter  theory.  The  experiments 
have  narrowed  the  poisonous  plants  down  to  the  white  snakeroot,  and 
Mosely  (1909)  attributed  the  poisonous  action  to  the  presence  of  alumi- 
num phosphate  (AlPCh)  in  the  plant,  but  experiments  with  this  sub- 
stance has  not  substantiated  his  claims.  A  synthetic  study  of  the  plant 
has  indicated  that  there  are  glucosides  present  in  the  sap  of  the  white 
snakeroot,  but  the  particular  glucoside  responsible  for  the  disease  has  not 
been  isolated.  Further  studies  on  the  nature  of  the  active  principle  are 
in  progress.  No  efficient  remedial  treatment  has  yet  been  discovered. 

Ragwort  (Senecio  Jacobcea). — The  writer's  first  acquaintance  with 
this  plant,  or  Stinking  Willy,  as  it  is  called  in  Nova  Scotia,  was  with  the 
receipt  of  specimens  of  the  plant  for  identification  from  a  former  student, 
Dr.  A.  E.  Cunningham  of  Antigonish,  Nova  Scotia  with  the  statement,  that 
it  was  the  cause  of  the  socalled  Pictou  cattle  disease.  Not  much  was 
learned  about  the  disease  until  the  receipt  of  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  of  New  Zealand  for  1903  where  a  full  detailed 
account  covering  fifty  pages  is  given. 

Description. — The  tansy  ragwort,  or  staggerwort,  is  a  perennial  plant 
with  short,  thick  rootstocks.  The  stems  are  stout,  simple,  branched 
above,  smooth,  or  somewhat  wooly.  The  lower  leaves  are  petioled,  the 
upper  sessile.  The  leaf  segments  are  oblong-cuneate,  dentate,  or  incised. 
The  heads  are  numerous,  short-peduncled  in  large  compact  corymbs. 
The  involucre  is  narrowly  campanulate  with  linear-lanceolate,  acute 
bracts.  The  number  of  ray  florets  varies  from  twelve  to  fifteen.  They 
are  yellow  with  truncate,  dentate  apices.  The  disk  florets  are  brownish- 
yellow.  The  plant  is  found  in  waste  planes  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Ontario,  and  has  been  found  on  the  ballast  about  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  having  been  introduced  from  Europe,  where  it  is  native. 


HO  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Disease. — The  Pictou  cattle-disease  is  only  found  in  Canada,  in  a  dis- 
trict spread  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Nova  Scotia  peninsula,  a  tract 
of  country  extending  about  forty  miles  along  that  coast  and  stretching 
from  five  to  twelve  miles  inland.  In  this  district,  it  has  been  noted  for 
some  forty  years,  now  at  one  end  of  the  area,  now  at  the  other.  Cattle 
are  in  the  main  affected,  but  cases  are  on  record  in  which  sheep  and  even 
horses  have  shown  symptoms  of  the  disease.  The  disease  would  seem  to 
be  very  chronic,  and  all  the  cattle  upon  a  farm  are  not  affected  simultane- 
ously. What  appears  to  be  a  similar  disease  has  been  recorded  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  Germany,  but  the  ragwort  has  not  been  associated  ap- 
parently with  the  disease  as  its  cause. 

Symptoms. — The  most  detailed  account  of  the  symptoms  come  from 
New  Zealand  where  the  disease  has  occurred  in  the  Southland  and  hi  a 
small  portion  of  the  Waikato  district,  Auckland  Province,  in  the  Wairaropa 
district  and  probably  on  the  west  coast  of  the  South  Island.  The  most 
notable  symptoms  in  horses  are  a  weak,  staggering,  swaying  gait,  when 
standing  a  tendency  to  stamp  with  one  or  both  hind  feet,  twitching  of  the 
muscles,  an  amaurotic  condition  of  the  pupils,  yellowness  of  the  visible 
mucous  membranes,  a  clammy  condition  of  the  mouth,  irregular  and  gen- 
erally weak  intermittent  pulse,  a  depraved  appetite  and  a  normal  tem- 
perature. The  earliest  noticeable  symptom  is  drowsiness  and  general 
dullness.  There  is  a  depraved  appetite,  the  horse  eating  barn  yard  rub- 
bish. There  is  inability  to  completely  coordinate  the  muscles  and  in 
advanced  stages  difficulty  to  keep  from  falling.  There  are  symptoms  like 
drunkenness,  a  staggering,  swaying  gait  followed  by  a  frenzied  condition, 
such  as  madness,  head  held  high,  etc.  Soon  the  animal  falls  down  unable 
to  rise.  Later  the  horse  becomes  unconscious,  complete  coma  sets  in 
and  death  rapidly  comes. 

In  dairy  cows,  the  first  notable  symptom  is  diminution  of  the  milk 
supply.  Later  the  milk  has  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  animal's  skin  with  an 
acrid  flavor.  There  is  rapid  emaciation,  a  voracious  appetite,  or  a  total 
absence  of  any  desire  for  food.  Jaundice  is  more  or  less  pronounced. 
Dropsy  of  the  abdomen  is  frequently  observed,  while  the  animal  is  alive. 
There  is  a  similar  want  of  coordination  of  the  muscles,  as  in  horses,  and 
there  is  always  chronic  diarrhoea  of  a  most  persistent  type  accompany- 
ing the  rapid  emaciation.  Feeding  cattle  and  cows  kept  for  purely  breed- 
ing purposes,  do  not  exhibit  quite  the  same  symptoms.  Diarrhoea  is 
not  nearly  so  acute,  dropsy  of  the  abdomen  is  not  so  evident,  and  whereas 


PRINCIPALLY   SOLANACEOUS    AND    COMPOSITOUS    PLANTS         III 

in  the  dairy  cow  symptoms  may  be  exhibited  for  even  ten  days,  or  a 
fortnight,  in  these  cows  death  occurs  in  from  two  to  five  days,  the  animal 
being  in  a  visible  state  of  excitement  almost  bordering  on  frenzy.  The 
proof  that  the  milk  is  changed  is  the  refusal  of  the  calf  to  come  to  its 
mother  paying  no  attention  to  her  bellowing. 

Post-Mortem  Study. — The  most  striking  appearance  on  skinning  an 
animal  in  the  post-mortem  examination  is  the  yellow,  bile-stained  condi- 
tion of  the  tissues.  The  peritoneum,  the  fat,  and  the  general  viscera  all 
exhibit  the  same  appearance,  which  may  vary  from  a  faint  tinge  to  the 
proverbial  " yellow  as  a  guinea."  In  cattle,  there  is  frequently  a  large 
accumulation  of  a  semi-gelatinous,  yellowish  exudate,  situated  subcutane- 
ously  along  the  inferior  borders  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  The  most 
marked  change  is  in  the  liver,  which  is  almost  constantly  in  a  state  of 
chronic  cirrhosis.  The  organ  is  usually  smaller  than  normal,  of  a  dull, 
mottled,  slaty-blue  color  frequently  pitted  and  almost  "  hob-nailed, "  there 
being  occasionally  small  dark-blue  pitted  areas  underneath  the  capsule 
and  throughout  the  structure.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  usually  much 
enlarged. 

Feeding  experiments  and  the  fact  that  the  Auckland  District  in  New 
Zealand,  where  Senecio  Jacobaea  occurs,  is  separated  by  thousands  of 
miles  from  the  Pictou  district  of  Nova  Scotia,  where  the  plant  is  also 
found,  is  sufficient  proof  that  the  ragwort  is  the  causative  agent  of  the 
same  disease  in  cattle  in  both  widely  separated  countries. 

Hay-Fever  Plants  (Pollinosis). — Hay-fever,  or  autumnal  catarrh,  is  an 
affection  of  the  upper  air  passages  occurring  periodically,  usually  at  or 
near  a  fixed  date  in  the  early  autumn,  sometimes  in  the  spring,  or  summer, 
characterized  by  its  sudden  onset  and  as  sudden  termination,  and  by  a 
swelling  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nasal  and  adjacent  cavities, 
irritating  discharges  therefrom,  and  various  symptoms  of  coryza,  and 
occasionally  by  asthmatic  paroxysms.  It  has  been  conclusively  proved 
by  many  authorities  that  hay-fever  does  not  occur  unless  we  have  a 
conjunction  of  three  necessary  factors: 

1.  An  external  air-borne  irritant; 

2.  A  sensitive,  or  diseased,  nasal  mucous  membrane; 

3.  An  unstable  nerve  center. 

The  second  and  third  elements  are  usually  associated  with  a  functional, 
or  hereditary  predisposition  to  the  disease.  The  first  is  associated  with 
the  external  causative  factor. 


112  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

The  President  of  the  American  Hay-Fever  Prevention  Association 
states  that  about  one  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  United  States 
suffers  from  the  disease.  As  he  believes  that  the  external  cause  is  the 
pollen  of  various  plants,  the  extermination  of  these  plants  would  result  in 
the  practical  elimination  of  hay-fever.  Various  plants  give  rise  to  pollen 
grains  in  sufficient  number  to  provide  the  irritating  material  cause  of  hay- 
fever.  Such  are  the  rose,  rye,  sweet  vernal  grass  (Anthoxanthum  odora- 
tum)  sweet-scented  soft  grass  (Holcus  odoratus),  meadow  grass,  Indian 
corn,  barley,  wheat,  oats,  bean  flowers,  lilies,  elder  bushes  in  bloom,  the 
goldenrods,  hay,  timothy,  spiny  amaranth,  marsh  elder,  yellow  dock, 
Johnson  grass  and  cockle-bur.  E.  Philip  Smith  enumerates  the  principal 
hay-fever  plants.  The  hay-fever  plants  par  excellence  are  the  common 
ragweed  (Ambrosia  artemisicefolia) ,  great  ragweed  (Ambrosia  trifida)  and 
western  ragweed  (Ambrosia  psilostachya).  These  plants  are  widely  dis- 
tributed and  blossom  in  late  August  and  early  September,  producing  an 
abundance  of  wind-carried  pollen.  Perhaps  more  cases  of  hay-fever  are 
due  to  these  plants  than  all  others  put  together. 

Common  Ragweed  (Ambrosia  artemisia/oHa) . — This  is  a  native, 
annual,  branching  plant  growing  about  two  to  three  feet  tall.  It  has 
thin  leaves,  bipinnately  divided  and  racemes  of  numerous  staminate 
heads  with  chaffy  receptacle.  The  pistillate  heads  are  clustered.  The 
plant  is  found  from  Nova  Scotia  to  British  Columbia,  Florida  and 
Mexico. 

Great  Ragweed  (Ambrosia  trifida). — This  is  an  annual  plant  with  hir- 
sute to  hispid  stems,  1-5  meters  tall,  and  opposite,  deeply  three  to  five 
lobed  leaves  with  serrate  margins.  The  racemes  of  staminate  heads  are 
5-15  centimeters  long  with  saucer-shaped  involucres,  while  the  pistillate 
heads  are  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  leaf-like  bracts.  The  great  ragweed 
occurs  in  the  rich  alluvial  soil  along  streams  in  moist,  meadow  soils  from 
Quebec  to  Northwest  Territory,  Florida,  Arkansas  and  Colorado.  The 
third  species  of  ragweed,  Ambrosia  psilostachya  ranges  from  Northwest 
Territory  to  Illinois,  Texas,  Mexico  and  California.  Artemisia  heter- 
ophytta  of  California  may  also  be  classed  with  the  hay-fever  inducing 
plants.  The  results  of  experimentation  with  various  kinds  of  pollen  have 
been  most  discordant.  As  the  digestive  power  of  the  nasal  mucosa  is 
very  slight  and  the  pollen-grain  is  effectively  sealed,  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  any  of  the  protein-contents  could  diffuse  out  passively. 
The  affects  of  the  possible  germination  of  pollen  in  the  nasal  passages  may 


PRINCIPALLY   SOLANACEOUS    AND   COMPOSITOUS   PLANTS         113 

be  set  aside.  Foreign  bodies  may  produce  sneezing,  but  not  the  after 
effects.  E.  Philip  Smith  suggests  that  there  is  an  oily  substance  on  the 
outer  wall  (exine)  of  the  pollen  grains  which  cause  hay  fever.  Experi- 
menting with  pollen  of  Hibiscus,  he  found  upon  shaking  it  up  with  cold 
ether,  that  an  oil  could  be  obtained  by  allowing  the  ether  to  evaporate. 
This  oily  residue  applied  to  the  skin  raised  a  severe  blister.  If  this  idea, 
that  the  poisonous  principle  of  pollen  is  an  irritant  oil,  a  new  light  is  thrown 
upon  the  nature  of  the  poisoning  which  resolves  itself  into  a  kind  of 
dermatitis,  or  irritation  of  the  delicate,  ciliated  epithelium  lining  the 
nasal  cavities. 

Granted  that  the  pollen  of  these  plants  is  responsible  for  hay-fever, 
the  way  of  controlling  the  disease  would  be  the  extermination  of  the  plants. 
This  might  be  accomplished  by  hand  pulling,  if  every  one  would  cooperate  in 
this  laudable  enterprise.  Barring  the  entire  destruction  of  these  noxious 
weeds,  mowing  just  before  they  start  to  shed  their  pollen  would  be  a 
means  of  their  final  destruction,  as  this  would  prevent  the  formation  of 
seeds  upon  which  the  perpetuation  of  the  species  depends.  Concerted 
action  should  be  taken  to  exterminate  these  useless  and  deleterious 
ragweeds. 

Remedies. — Recent  work  has  been  done  along  remedial  lines  by 
securing  a  hay-fever  vaccine  to  be  used  in  the  immunization  of  the  suscep- 
tible person.  To  secure  this  vaccine,  the  flowers  of  the  various  hay-fever 
plants  are  collected  when  pollination  has  started.  They  are  dried  and  the 
pollen  collected  by  means  of  fine  sieves.  The  pollen  is  dried  thoroughly 
and  preserved  in  a  dry  state  until  it  is  to  be  extracted.  In  the  preparation 
of  the  extract. 

1.  The  pollen  is  mixed  with  sufficient  physiological  saline  solution 
(0.85  per  cent.)  to  make  a  fairly  thick  paste. 

2.  The  paste  is  transferred  to  a  ball  mill  and  ground  for  24  hours,  or, 
until  microscopic  examination  shows  that  the  pollen  grains  are  broken. 

3.  Physiological  saline  solution  is  added  and  the  resultant  mixture  is 
centrifuged  to  remove  insoluble  debris. 

4.  The  extracted  protein  is  purified  by  precipitation  with  acetone. 

5.  The  precipitate  is  dried  and  thus  preserved  until  needed. 

6.  For  use,  the  precipitate  is  dissolved  in  physiological  saline  solution. 
The  amount  of  protein-nitrogen  in  this  solution  is  determined  by  the 
Kjeldahl  method. 

7.  The  solution  is  then  diluted  so  that  each  cubic  centimeter  will 

8 


II4  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

contain  certain  fractions  of  a  milligram  of  protein-nitrogen.  The  lowest 
dilution,  i  cc.  of  which  may  be  used  as  the  initial  dose  in  treatment, 
contains  o.oo  25  mg. 

8.  The  final  solutions  are  preserved  from  contamination  by  the  addition 
of  0.35  per  cent,  tricresol  and  sterilized  by  filtration.  Sterility  is  deter- 
mined by  careful  aerobic  and  anaerobic  cultural  tests. 

Vaccines. — Two  kinds  of  vaccines  have  been  prepared  the  ''spring" 
and  "fall."  The  hay -fever  vaccine  "spring"  contains  the  varieties  of 
pollen  which  are  the  causative  agents  in  the  great  majority  of  hay-fever 
cases  occurring  in  the  late  spring  and  early  summer.  The  hay-fever 
vaccine  "fall"  contains  only  proteins  from  the  pollens  of  ragweed,  golden- 
rod  and  maize.  For  immunization  against  hay-fever,  the  first  dose  of 
the  vaccine  in  a  syringe  should  be  given  30  days  before  the  expected  attack 
and  the  vaccine  should  be  used  weekly  at  intervals  during  the  entire 
period  of  accustomed  attack  or  until  immunity  is  established. 

Another  preparation  is  pollantin,  used  as  an  antitoxic  serum  to  secure 
immunity  against  an  attack  of  hay  fever. 

Walnut  Pollen  as  a  Cause  of  Hay  Fever. — The  spring  type  of  hay  fever 
is  very  troublesome  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  California  where  it  has 
been  found  to  be  due  to  the  pollen  of  the  native  Californian  black  walnut 
(Juglans  calif  arnica,  var.  Hindsii},  which  produces  pollen  in  abundance 
during  the  peiiod  of  the  prevalences  of  the  malady,  which  disappears 
after  the  close  of  the  flowering  period.  Biological  tests  were  made  upon 
eight  hay  fever  subjects  with  positive  results  in  each  case  with  the  use 
of  walnut  pollen.  Twelve  susceptible  persons  were  examined  at  Chico, 
where  cases  are  common,  and  where  the  walnut  is  planted  as  an  ornamental 
tree,  and  in  every  case  positive  reactions  were  obtained  with  extracts 
prepared  from  the  Californian  black  walnut  pollen. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Veterinary  Medicine,  1916,  in. 
BOSTON  GLOBE:  Hay  Fever  Causes.     Health  Board  puts  Blame  on  Certain  Types  of 

Weeds.     Boston,  Sunday  September  3,  1916,  page  12. 
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Colored  Plates,  Ottawa,  1906,  pages  51,  52,  57.. 
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The  Country  Gentleman,  August  5,  1916,  page  1467. 


PRINCIPALLY    SOLANACEOUS    AND    COMPOSITOUS   PLANTS         115 

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Sickness.  Bulletin  121,  Part  I,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1908. 

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Rose  Fever  and  Similar  Complaints. 

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Bulletin  211,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College, 
1915.  •*»* 

HALL,  HARVEY  M.:  Walnut  Pollen  as  a  Cause  of  Hay  Fever.  Science  new  ser.,  Ivii, 
516-517,  May  24,  1918.  t 

HARRIS,  Ff  W.  and  COCKBURN,  F. :  Alleged  Poisoning  by  Potatoes.  American  Journal 
of  Pharmacy,  90,  722-726,  October,  1918. 

HILGENDORF,  F.  W. :  Plants  Poisonous  to  Stock.  Journal  of  the  Canterbury  Agri- 
cultural and  Pastoral  Association,  3d  Ser.,  vi,  15-21,  June,  1918. 

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Press,  1917,  pages  44-46,  50-60. 

MARSH,  C.  D WIGHT:  Prevention  and  Loss  of  Live  Stock  from  Plant  Poisoning.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  720,  U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  1916. 

MARSH,  C.  DWIGHT  and  CLAWSON,  A.  B.:  Eupatorium  utkaefolium  as  a  Poisonous 
Plant.  Journal  Agricultural  Research,  xi,  699-715,  Dec.  24,  1917. 

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1918. 

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Foreign,  Iviii,  40-44,  Feb.,  1920. 

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LABORATORY  WORK 

I.  Study  and  describe  the  several  plants  which  form  the  themes  for  this  chapter 
preserved  for  the  purpose  in  alcohol,  dried  or  fresh  specimens.  The  botanical  teacher 
with  knowledge  of  his  flora  can  use  the  facts  of  this  chapter  in  laboratory  work  in  any 
part  of  the  civilized  world. 


Il6  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

a.  Test  the  action  of  the  leaves  of  Jimson  weed,  especially  if  fresh,  by  rubbing  the 
leaves  with  the  index  finger  and  then  rubbing  the  eye  balls  with  the  finger.  Does  the 
pupil  dilate  as  a  result  of  such  treatment? 

3.  The  following  test  with  hyoscyamin  can  be  made.     Hyoscyamin  shows  an  alka- 
line reaction  with  phenolptalein  and  causes  a  yellow  to  red  precipitate_when  touched 
with  a  2  per  cent/solution  of  mercuric  chloride  in  diluted  alcohol. 

4.  Examine  microscopically  and  draw  the  pollen  of  the  ragweeds,  Ambrosia  artemisi- 
aefolia  and  Ambrosia  trifida,  preserved  in  weak  formalin  (2  per  cent.)  for  this  purpose, 
or  dried  pollen  may  be  substituted,  when  mounted  in  water  for  examination. 


CHAPTER  10 
FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

The  food  of  the  domestic  animals  (excluding  the  carnivorous  house 
pets,  the  dog  and  the  cat)  is  vegetable  derived  from  living  plants,  or  from 
plants  cured  in  various  ways  for  preservation  during  that  part  of  the  year 
when  plant  life  is  dormant.  When  we  discuss  the  plants  suitable  as  food 
for  cattle,  whether  fresh  or  preserved,  we  are  dealing  with  forage  plants. 
If  the  cattle  are  turned  into  the  open  fields  to  eat  the  food  plants  found 
there,  they  are  consuming  the  pasture  plants,  usually  the  pasture,  or 
pasturage.  Soilage,  used  as  a  term  for  the  first  time  in  1900,  means  sup- 
plying forage  fresh  from  the  field  to  animals  in  confinement.  The  plants, 
which  are  grown  for  this  purpose,  are  known  as  soiling  crops.  Fodder  is 
a  comprehensive  term  for  cattle  food  usually  fed  in  bulk  and  in  the  dry 
state,1  while  hay  is  grass  that  has  been  cut  and  dried  for  use  as  fodder. 
Ensilage,  or  silage,  is  the  preservation  of  green  forage  such,  as  corn,  beet 
tops,  and  other  plants  in  a  pit  dug  in  the  ground,  or  in  a  large  tank,  or 
vat,  above  ground  known  as  the  silo.  By  a  process  of  fermentation,  the 
green  plant  parts  are  converted  into  silage.  Stover,  or  corn  stover,  de- 
notes the  dried  stalks  of  corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed. 
Chemical  Constituents. — The  substances,  which  have  been  formed 
in  the  living  plant  through  the  activity  of  its  living  protoplasm  in  the  leaves 
of  tlae  green  plant  principally,  and  have  found  their  way  into  the  plant 
by  the  active  absorption  of  the  roots,  or  by  a  gaseous  interchange  of  oxy- 
gen and  carbon  dioxide  with  the  air,  have  been  classified  by  chemists  into 
several  groups.  These  are  water,  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  crude  protein, 
fi  er,  fat,  nitrogen-free  extract,  carbohydrates.  Fresh  mangels  contain 
90.6  per  cent,  of  water,  i  per  cent,  of  ash,  1.4  per  cent,  crude  protein, 
0.8  per  cent,  fiber,  6.1  per  cent,  nitrogen-free  extract  and  o.i  per  cent.  fat. 
Timothy  hay  shows  on  analysis,  n.6  per  cent,  water,  4.9  per  cent,  ash, 
6.2  per  cent,  crude  protein,  29.9  per  cent,  fiber,  45.0  nitrogen-free  extract, 
2.5  per  cent,  of  fat,  while  dent  corn  has  the  composition  of  10.5  per  cent. 

1  Fodder  corn  is  applied  to  stalks  of  corn  green  or  dry  with  all  the  ears  which  have 
been  grown  primarily  for  forage. 

117 


IT8  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

water,  1.5  per  cent,  ash,  10.1  per  cent,  crude  protein,  2.0  per  cent,  fiber, 
70.9  per  cent,  nitrogen  free  extract  and  5.0  per  cent.  fat. 

Nature  of  Feeds. — In  the  consideration  of  feeds,  it  is  important  to 
differentiate  between  those  which  have  a  coarse,  bulky  character  and 
others  which  are  more  concentrated  and  nutritious.  Accordingly  the 
terms  " roughage"  and  "concentrates"  are  used.  Roughage  represents 
the  coarser  feeding  stuffs,  which  have  a  considerable  amount  of  fiber  and 
therefore,  smaller  amount  of  digestible  matter.  Roughage  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  animal  in  good  condition,  as  it  is  an  aid  to  digestion.  Con- 
centrates are  feeding  stuffs  of  a  concentrated  nature,  which  have  a  small 
amount  of  fiber  and,  therefore,  a  relatively  large  amoun  t  of  digestible  ma  tter . 

Digestion. — As  the  bodies  of  the  domestic  animals  are  composed 
of  protein,  fat,  mineral  substances,  dry  substances  and  water,  these  must 
be  supplied  in  the  food  which  the  animal  consumes.  The  changes,  which 
the  food  undergoes  within  the  digestive  tract  of  the  animal  to  prepare 
it  for  absorption  and  for  utilization  by  the  animal  bodies  are  known  as 
digestion.  Digestion  is  accomplished  by  the  enzymes,  or  feiments,  pro- 
duced by  the  glands  of  the  mouth  stomach,  pancreas,  the  small  intestines 
and  the  liver.  Bacteria  found  in  various  paths  of  the  alimentary  canal 
help  to  break  down  the  food  also,  especially  the  fibrous  materials.  A 
nutrient  is  any  food  constituent,  or  group  of  food  constituents,  that  help 
in  the  support  of  animal  life.  There  are  three  primary  classes  of  nutrients, 
viz.,  crude  protein,  the  carbohydrates  and  the  fats.  Air,  water  and  min- 
eral matter  might  also  be  classed  with  nutrients,  but  are  usually  excluded 
from  this  category.  WHen  it  has  been  found  that  the  above  substances 
are  digested  by  the  domestic  animals,  they  are  termed  digestible  nutrients. 

Rations. — A  ration  on  the  farm  is  the  feed  allowed,  or  set  apart,  to 
support  a  given  animal  for  a  day  of  24  hours,  whether  all  of  the  food  is 
given  at  one  time,  or  is  divided  into  portions  given  at  intervals  throughout 
the  day.  There  are  several  kinds  of  rations  recognized  in  the  feeding  of 
animals.  A  complete  or  a  balanced  ration  is  the  feed  or  combination  of 
food  stuffs  which  will  supply  the  several  nutrients,  crude  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  in  the  right  amounts,  and  in  the  right  proportions  with- 
out excess  of  any  nutrient,  so  as  to  nourish  a  given  animal  for  one  day. 
A  maintenance  ration  is  one  that  furnishes  enough,  but  no  more,  of  each 
and  all  of  the  several  nutrients  than  is  required  to  maintain  a  given  resting 
animal,  so  that  it  will  neither  gain  nor  lose  in  weight. 

As  the  character  of  the  alimentary  tract  with  its  associated  "glands 
and  other  organs  are  considered  by  the  ana  tomist  and  as  the  processes  of 


FEEDS    AND   FEEDING  1 19 

mastication,  the  digestion  in  the  simple  stomach  of  the  horse  and  pig  and 
in  the  three  stomachs  of  the  ruminants,  and  later  in  the  small  intestine,  by 
the  pancreas,  the  liver  and  in  the  large  intestine  are  discussed  by  the 
animal  physiologist,  they  are  omitted  from  description  here.  It  may  be 
said,  however,  that  protein  digestion  is  accomplished  by  the  pepsin  in  the 
stomach  assisted  by  the  trypsin  and  erepsin  in  the  small  intestine.  The 
digestion  of  either  starch  or  sugars  consists  in  converting  them  into 
glucose,  or  glucose-like  sugars  and  this  transformation  takes  place 
through  the  activity  of  the  ptyalin  in  the  saliva  and  by  the  amylase  formed 
in  the  small  intestine,  where  the  final  carbohydrate  digestion  takes  place. 
The  fats  are  digested  by  the  secretions  of  the  pancreas,  where  a  fat  splitting 
enzyme  lipase  is  formed  which  breaks  fats  into  glycerin  and  fatty  acids. 
The  bile  secretions  largely  made  up  of  alkaline  salts  react  with  the  fatty  acids 
to  form  soaps,  which  with  the  glycerin  is  absorbed  by  the  intestinal  wall. 

Metabolism,  or  the  process  by  which  the  digested  nutrients  of  the 
food  are  utilized  for  the  production  of  heat  and  work,  or  built  up  with 
the  living  matter  of  the  body,  or  broken  down  and  eliminated,  is  a  sub- 
ject for  the  consideration  of  the  animal  physiologist. 

Digestibility  of  Animal  Foods. — A  large  number  of  experiments  have 
been  performed  on  animals  of  various  kinds  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
digestibility  of  the  feeding  stuffs.  The  list  of  feeds,  which  have  been  used 
in  these  experiments,  is  a  long  one.  Out  of  these  experiments  a  number  of 
important  facts  have  been  adduced.  The  average  percentage  of  each 
nutrient  digested  in  a  feeding  stuff  is  termed  the  coefficient  of  digestibility, 
or  digestion  coefficient,  for  that  nutrient  in  the  feed.  The  food  is  given 
to  the  animal  by  weight  and  in  these  trials  it  is  generally  assumed  that 
all  matter  appearing  in  the  feces  has- escaped  the  action  of  the  digestive 
ferments  and  so  represents  the  indigestible  part  of  the  food.  Thus  for 
dent  corn  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry  matter,  74  per  cent,  of  the  crude 
protein,  57  per  cent,  of  the  fiber,  94  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract, 
and  93  per  cent,  of  the  fat  is  digestible.  Feeds  with  little  fiber  have  high 
digestibility.  To  determine  the  digestible  nutrients  in  any  feeding  stuff, 
the  total  amount  of  each  nutrient  in  100  pounds  thereof  is  multiplied  by 
the  digestion  coefficient  for  that  nutrient.  Thus  100  pounds  of  dent  corn 
contain  10.1  pounds  of  crude  protein  of  which  74  per  cent,  is  digestible, 
which  indicates  that  there  are  approximately  7.5  pounds  of  digestible 
protein  in  100  pounds  of  dent  corn. 

Nutritive  Ratios.— As  protein  serves  special  uses  in  the  body  in  dis- 
cussions of  feeds  and  rations  the  term  nutritive  ratio  is  used  to  show  the 


I20  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

proportion  of  digestible  protein  contained  in  comparison  with  the  other 
nutrients,  so  that  by  nutritive  ratio  is  meant  the  ratio  which  exists  in 
any  given  feeding  stuff  between  the  digestible  crude  protein  and  the  com- 
bined digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  nutritive  ratios  for  dent 
corn  is  determined  as  follows:  The  digestible  fat  in  100  pounds  of  dent 
corn  is  4.6  pounds,  which  is  multiplied  by  2.25,  because  fat  will  produce 
2.25  times  as  much  heat  on  being  burned  in  the  body  as  do  the  carbo- 
hydrates. Add  the  product  to  67.8  pounds,  the  digestible  carbohydrate, 
which  gives  78.15  and  divided  by  the  amount  of  digestible  crude  protein 
7.5,  which  gives  as  a  quotient  10.4,  which  is  the  second  factor  of  the  ratio. 
The  colon  is  used  to  express  the  nutritive  ratios  thus  i  :  10.4,  which  is 
read  as  follows:  for  each  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein  in  dent  corn 
there  are  10.4  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  or  fat  equivalent.  It 
follows  from  the 'above  that  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio  is  one  having  much 
crude  protein  in  proportion  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  combine'd.  A  wide 
ratio  is  where  the  percentage  of  crude  protein  is  small  compared  to  the 
carbohydrates  and  fats.  Linseed  meal  rich  in  protein  has  the  narrow  ratio 
of  i  :  1.6;  oats  i  :  6.3,  while  oat  straw  has  the  wide  ratio  of  i  :44.6,  because 
of  its  low  content  of  crude  digestible  protein.  ^  Carbonaceous  feeds  are 
those  with  a  wide  nutritive  ratio.  Nitrogenous  feeds  are  those  with  a 
narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

Energy  of  Food. — The  energy  of  the  animal  body  is  derived  from  the 
food  which  serves  as  the  fuel  in  supplying  that  energy.  The  full  value  of 
a  feeding  stuff  is  ascertained  by  burning  a  weighed  quantity  of  it  in  pure 
oxygen  gas  under  pressure  in  an  apparatus  called  a  calorimeter.  The 
evolved  heat  is  taken  up  by  water  surrounding  the  burning  chamber  and 
is  measured  with  a  thermometer,  the- units  of  measurement  being  the  calorie 
and  the  therm.  A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  i  kilogram  of  water  i°C.  or  i  pound  of  water  nearly  4°F.',  A. 
therm  is  1,000  Calories,  or  the  amount  of 'heat  required  to  raise  1,000  kilo- 
grams of  water  i°C.  or  1,000  pounds  of  water  nearly  4°F. 

The  full  value  of  100  pounds  of 

Anthracite  coal 358.3  Therms 

Timothy  hay  with  15  pc  moisture J75-I  Therms 

Pure  digestible  protein 263.1  Therms 

Pure  digestible  carbohydrates 186.0  Therms 

Pure  digestible  fat 422.0  Therms 


FEEDS    AND   FEEDING  121 

The  available  energy  is  the  fuel  value  of  any  food  after  deducting  the 
losses  due  to  the  evacuation  of  undigested  food,  the  fermentations  of 
foods,  the  excretion  of  urea  and  other  protein  bodies.  Besides  the  energy 
yielding  foods,  there  are  a  few  substances  like  the  vitamines  which  in 
minutely  small  quantities  are  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  health 
besides  certain  mineral  substances,  such  as  those  which  control  the  life 
processes. 

As  a  result  of  the  knowledge  of  feeds  and  feeding  given  above,  scien- 
tists have  drawn  up  tables  showing  the  amount  of  each  class  of  nutrients, 
which  are  known  as  the  feeding  standards.  Thus,  Haecker  of  the  Min- 
nesota Station  found  that  the  i,ooo-lb.  dry,  barren  cow  can  be  maintained 
on  0.6  Ib.  of  crude  protein,  6  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates  and  o.i  Ib.  of  fat,  all 
digestible.  A  i,ooo-lb.  milk-producing  cow  should  be  allowed  0.7  Ib.  of 
crude  protein,  7  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates  and  o.i  Ib.  of  fat,  all  digestible. 
These  feeding  standards  are  at  variance  with  the  Wolff-Lehmann  feeding 
standards  where  a  cow  yielding  22  Ibs.  of  milk  requires  29  Ibs.  of  dry 
matter,  2.5  Ibs.  of  protein,  13  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates,  0.5  Ib.  of  fat.  The 
nutritive  ratio  is  1 15. 7.  A  horse  at  medium  work,  according  to  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  feeding  standard  requires  24  Ibs.  of  dry  matter,  20.  Ibs.  of  crude 
protein,  n  Ibs.  of  carbohydrates,  0.6  Ib.  of  fat  with  the  nutritive  ratio  i  :6.2. 

.      BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ALLEN,  E.  W. :  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.     Farmers'  Bulletin  22,  U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture,  1895. 
ARMSBY,  HENRY  P.:  The  Maintenance  of  Rations  of  Farm  Animals.     Bulletin  143, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  1912. 
GARDNER,  FRANK  D.  WITH  COLLABORATORS:  Successful  Farming.     Ready  Reference 

on  all  Phases  of  Agriculture  for  Farmers  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.     The 

John  C.  Winston  Company,  Philadelphia,  1916,  pages  562-572. 
HALL,  A.  D.:  The  Book  of  Rothamsted  Experiments.     E.  P.  Dutton  and  Company, 

New  York,  1905,  pages  240-259. 
HENRY,  W.  A.  and  MORRISON,  F.  B. :  Feeds  and  Feeding.    A  Handbook  for  the  Student 

and    the    Stockman.     The    Henry-Morrison    Company,    Madison,    Wisconsin, 

Fifteenth  Edition,  1915. 
LUSK,  GRAHAM:  Science  of  Nutrition.     W.  B.  Saunders  Company,  3d  edition,  1918. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

The  laboratory  period  corresponding  to  this  lesson  may  be  devoted  to  an  oral  or  a 
written  test,  which  should  be  given  occasionally  as  a  matter  of  review  and  to  try  out 
the  proficiency  of  the  different  members  of  the  class. 


CHAPTER  ii 

THE  STRUCTURE  AND  GENERAL  ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE 
OF  GRASSES 

The  grass  family,  Graminaceoe,  is  the  most  important  family  econom- 
ically speaking  in  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom.  It  includes  several 
thousand  species,  all  of  them  with  a  few  exceptions  (see  ante)  being  with- 
out any  deleterious  properties.  The  vegetational  associations  where 
grasses  control  the  faces  are  known  as  meadows,  prairies,  pampas,  steppes 
and  savannahs. 

Habit. — The  grass  family  includes  low,  erect  herbs.  A  few,  such  as 
the  bamboos,  are  shrubs,  or  trees.  Some  grasses  are  creeping,  others 
trailing,  semi-erect,  erect  and  unbranched,  or  very  freely  branching  from 
the  base  (Fig.  46).  Several,  although  perennial,  are  monocarpic,  flower- 
ing and  fruiting  but  once.  In  duration  grasses  are  annuals,  winter 
annuals,  living  through  the  winter  and  sending  up  flower  stalks  the 
next  spring,  or  are  perennials. 

Roots. — Their  roots  are  fibrous,  and  secondary,  that  is,  there  is  never 
at  any  time  a  primary  root..  The  roots  in  such  grasses  as  maize  may  be 
divided  into  the  horizontal,  feeding  roots  penetrating  the  soil  at  no  great 
depth,  the  deep  roots  (3^  feet  in  corn)  for  anchorage  and  the  prop  roots 
which  develop  as  aerial  roots  from  the  lowermost  nodes  of  the  upright 
stern  and  later  enter  the  soil  bracing  the  stem  during  storms  of  wind. 
Occasionally,  the  deep  roots  draw  upon  the  deep-seated  supplies  of  water, 
especially  in  arid  countries,  where  such  grasses,  as  the  buffalo  grass 
(Buchlo'e),  grow  to  a  depth  of  seven  feet.  Ordinarily  in  the  grasses  with 
horizontal  underground  stems,  the  roots  spring  freely  from  the  nodes  and 
from  tufts  of  short  spreading  character.  The  interlacement  of  the 
subterranean  roots  and  stems  is  so  compact  in  areas  where  grasses  domi- 
nate in  herbage,  that  shrubs  and  trees  are  unable  to  establish  themselves 
in  competition  with  the  grasses  and  this  is  one  of  the  cogent  reasons  for 
the  treelessness  of  prairies  and  other  characteristic  grasslands,  such  as 
the  pampas  of  South  America. 


ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  GRASSES 


123 


Stems. — The  stems  of  grasses  are  divided  into  nodes  and  internodes 
and  are  called  culms  (halms, 
haulms).  The  nodes  are 
usually  enlarged  always  solid 
joints,  while  the  internodes 
are  hollow  (bamboo  and  most 
other  grasses),  or  solid  (maize 
and  sugar  cane).  The  under- 
giound  stems,  or  rootstocks 
(rhizomes),  are  likewise  jointed 
and  have  sometimes,  as  in  the 
marram  grass,  a  hard,  sharp- 
pointed,  growing  apex,  which 
enables  the  rootstock  to  push 
its  way  through  the  resistant 
soil.  Occasionally,  as  in  the 
reed  Phragmites  communis  of 
our  eastern  fenlands,  rhizomes 
are  found,  as  thick,  as  a 
fountain  pen,  and  5.8  meters 
long,  enabling  this  marsh  grass 
to  spread  with  great  rapidity 
in  the  occupation  of  new  areas 
of  marshland.  Two  types  of 
branching  of  the  erect  stem 
have  been  distinguished.  The 
extravaginal  method  is  where 
the  new  lateral  branch  breaks 
through  the  sheaths  of  the 
basal  leaves  of  the  stem  giving 
rise  to  horizontal  branches. 
This  method  of  branching  is 
typical  of  the  sod-,  or  turf- 
forming  grasses,  and  these 
alone  are  suitable  in  the  con- 
struction Of  lawns,  croquet  FIG-  46.-Wheat  plant  showing  the  general  habit 

of  grasses.     (Robbtns.) 
grounds  and  golf  courses.    The 

prairies  of  the  middle  west   owe  their  closed  turf  to  the  presence  of 


124  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

grasses  of  this  sort.  The  second  method  of  branching  has  been  termed 
the  intravaginal  where  the  new  branches  grow  inside  of  the  sheath 
parallel  to  the  stem,  finally  breaking  out  at  the  top  of  the  sheath. 
Such  grasses  are  known  as  bunch,  hassock,  or  tussock  grasses  and  are 
characteristic  of  the  western  plains,  or  steppes  of  the  world,  where  the 
tufts  of  grasses  are  separated  by  intervals  of  soil  bare  of  grasses.  When 
the  stem  of  grasses,  especially  agricultural  grasses,  such  as  maize,  rye  and 
wheat,  are  prostrated  by  a  wind  storm,  they  are  said  to  be  lodged. 
No  mechanical  tissue,  which  the  stem  may  have,  will  prevent  lodging,  if 
the  wind  be  sufficiently  strong.  Frequently  after  lodging,  the  stem  will 


-tertiary  stem 
—scale  leaf 
•-secondary  stem 
primary  stem 

roots 


.—grain  remains 
roots 


FIG.  47.— Diagrammatic     representation     of     tillering     in     cereals.     (Robbins     after 
Schindler.) 

erect  itself  again,  but  at  an  angle.  This  is  in  response  to  the  stimulus 
of  gravity  (geotropism).  There  remains  on  the  upper  side  of  each  grass 
stem  node  a  zone  of  cells  capable  of  growth  partly  belonging  to  the 
enlarged  base  of  the  sheath  and  partly  to  the  swollen  node.  The  cells 
of  the  lower  side  of  this  nascent  area  begin  to  grow  and  the  stem 
bends  upward  in  response  to  this  growth.  The  production  of  a  number 
of  new  upright  branches  from  the  lower  nodes  of  the  stem  in  grasses  is 
known  as  "mooting,"  "stooling"  or  "tillering"  (Fig.  47).  The  individual 
branches  are  called  "tillers"  and  the  entire  mass  of  branches  is  known  as 
the  "stool."  This  method  of  tillering  is  found  in  cultivated  oats  and 


ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  GRASSES 


125 


wheat  plants.  Stoloniferous  grasses  are  those  which  produce  horizontal 
stems  at  or  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  horizontal  stems  are  called 
runners,  or  stolons,  as  in  buffalo  grass  (Buchloe). 

Leaves. — The  leaves  of  grasses  arise  at  the  nodes,  a  single  leaf  at  each 
node.  They  are  arranged  in  two  ranks  (distichous)  with  the  third  leaf 
over  the  first  leaf,  so  that  this  arrangement  is  represented  by  the  frac- 
tion %,  standing  for  the  distichy.  The  grass  leaf  consists  of  three  parts, 
the  sheath,  the  ligule  and  the  blade.  The  sheath  is  always  open,  or 
split,  along  one  side  and  may  be  half 
as  long  as  an  internode,  as  long,  one 
and  a  half  times  as  long,  twice  as  long 
as  the  internode  along  side  of  which  it 
arises  from  the  node  below.  The  ligule, 
or  rain-guard,  takes  on  various  forms. 
Usually  it  is  membranous  and  fits 
tightly  like  a  collar  around  the  stem 
preventing  the  dust-laden  rain  from 
running  down  inside  of  the  sheath  (Fig. 
48).  The  blade  of  grass  leaves  is  linear 
or  ribbon-like  with  parallel  veins  and 
usually  an  acute,  or  acuminate  apex. 
Grass  leaves  capable  of  rolling  and 
unrolling  show  in  cross  sections  a  group 
of  enlarged  epidermal  cells,  between  the 
vascular  bundles,  the  bulliform  cells. 
These  cells  absorb  water  in  wet  weather 
and  the  leaves  flatten  out.  In  dry 
weather,  the  bulliform  cells  lose  water 
and  the  leaf  blades  roll  up. 

Inflorescence  and  Flowers. — The  grass  inflorescence,  or  flower  clus- 
ter, is  a  spike  of  spikelets,  a  raceme  of  spikelets,  or  a  panicle  of  spikelets. 
The  spikelet  is  the  ultimate  division  of  the  inflorescence  and  its  parts  are 
arranged  in  a  distichous  manner  on  a  shortened  axis  known  as  the  rachilla. 
The  lower  scales  of  the  spikelet  are  bructlets  known  as  the  glumes.  These 
are  always  empty  and  do  not  have  flowers  in  their  axils.  Above  these 
glumes  are  the  flowers,  or  florets  (Fig.  49).  The  variations  in  the  mor- 
phology, arrangement,  etc.,  of  the  spikelets  are  of  the  most  diverse  kind, 
and  upon  these  characters  depend  largely  the  classification  of  the  grasses. 


FIG.  48. — Barley.  A,  portion  of 
leaf  at  juncture  of  leaf  and  blade;  B, 
stem  cut  in  median  lengthwise  section. 
X2^.  (Robbins.) 


126 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Sometimes  there  is  only  one  flower  in  the  spikelet.  This  may  be  herma- 
phrodite, or  it  may  be  staminate,  or  pistillate.  Frequently  the  spikelet 
has  several  to  many  florets  all  of  which  are  perfect,  or  the  upper  florets 
may  be  imperfect,  or  sterile,  and  the  lowermost  perfect,  or  vice  versa. 
Sometimes  the  flower  is  represented  in  the  spikelet  by  one  of  its  subtend- 
ing scale  leaves.  The  bractlet  which  subtends  the  floret  is  known  as  the 
lemma  (flowering  glume)  and  the  inner  scale  opposed  to  the  outer  is  the 
palet,  or  palea  (Fig.  50).  Frequently  the  lemma  bears  a  bristle-like 
outgrowth,  or  awn,  and  this  may  be  barbed.  In  many  grasses,  the 


-  rachu 


FIG.  49.  FIG.  50. 

FIG.  49. — Single  spikelet  of  common  wheat  (Triticum'&stivum) .      X  2.     (Robbins.) 

FIG.  50. — Rye  (Secale  cereale).     A,*a.  single  spikelet  at  a  joint  on  the  rachis;  B. 

grain,  external  view;  C,  grain  in  cross-section.     A,    X2$2>  B  and  C,    X5-     (Robbins.) 

perianth  segments  of  ordinary  monocotyledons,  such  as  the  lily,  are  repre- 
sented by  three  (bamboos),  two  (most  grasses),  or  a  single  small  body 
known  as  a  lodicule,  or  a  squamula.  It  is  the  swelling  of  these  lodicules 
which  causes  the  separation  of  lemma  from  palet  permitting  the  anthers 
and  styles  to  emerge.  A  floret  without  lodicules  never  opens.  The 
stamens  of  the  grasses  have  long  filaments  and  anthers,  which  are  really 
adnate,  but  by  the  growth  of  the  anther  lobes  below  the  point  of  attach- 
ment of  the  filament  and  the  final  swinging  of  the  anther  in  the  wind,  the 
whole  arrangement  strongly  suggests  the  versatile  anther.  Most  grasses 


ECONOMIC    IMPORTANCE    OF    GRASSES 


127 


FIG.  51. — Timothy   (Phleum  pratense).     A,  single  spikelet;  B,   spikelet  with  glumes 
removed;  C,  pistil.     (Robbins.) 


groove 


PIG.  52.  PIG.  53. 

FIG.  52. — Diagram  of  A,  lily  flower,  and  B,  grass  flower  showing  homologous  struc- 
tures. A,  f,  bract;  ax,  axis;  op,  outer  part  ot  perigonium;  ip,  inner  part  of  perigonium; 
5,  stamens;  c,  tricarpellary  3-celled  ovary.  B,  shaded  structures  are  aborted;  le,  glume 
(bract);  ax,  axis;  p,  palet,  and  p',  lemma  (outer  perianth);  I  and  I'  lodicules  (inner  part 
of  perigonium);  5  and  s',  two  whorls  of  stamens;  c,  tricarpellary  i-celled  ovary.  (B. 
Robbins  after  Schuster.) 

FIG.  53. — Part  of  a  median  lengthwise  section  of  a  grain  of  wheat;  much  enlarged. 
(Robbins  after  Strasburger.) 


128  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

have  three  stamens,  some  bamboos  have  six,  while  some  grasses  have 
two  and  even  one  stamen.  The  pollen  grains  are  smooth  and  wind  dis- 
tributed (anemophily).  The  grass  ovary  is  superior  one-celled,  one- 
ovuled  and  bears  terminally  two  feathery  styles,  stigmatic  along  their 
whole  hairy  surface  (Figs.  51  and  52).  Maize  has  only  one  hairy  style, 
but  the  presence  of  two  vascular  bundles  suggests  that  it  has  arisen  by 
the  fusion  of  two  elongated  styles.  Rice  has  occasionally  three  styles. 

The  fruit  of  grasses  is  one-seeded,  dry  and  indehiscent,  and  hence, 
belongs  to  the  class  of  achenial  fruits.  It  is  known  as  a  caryopsis, 
or  grain  fruit.  In  this  type  of  fruit  the  ovary  wall  (pericarp)  is  closely 
united  to  the  seed  coat,  whereas  in  barley  and  oats  the  chaff  firmly  sur- 
rounds the  ovary  wall.  The  embryo  is  usually  in  touch  with  the  seed 
coats  on  one  side  of  the  kernel  and  the  reserve  food,  as  starchy  endo- 
sperm fills  up  the  remainder  of  the  space  (Fig.  53).  Sometimes,  as  in 
maize,  there  is  in  addition  a  horny  endosperm  which  imparts  hardness  to 
the  grain. 

ECONOMIC  USES  OP  GRASSES 

The  forage  grasses,  those  used  as  food  for  cattle,  are  of  the  most  im- 
portance from  an  economic  standpoint.  "All  flesh  is  grass"  is  as  true 
today,  as  it  was  in  bible  times.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  groups 
to  be  considered  in  detail  in  the  next  chapter,  viz.,  the  pasture  grasses, 
the  hay  grasses  and  the  fodder  grasses.  The  cereals  are  those  grasses 
which  are  grown  for  their  grain.  The  most  important  are  the  common 
head  wheat  (Triticum  acstivum),  the  durum  wheat  (Trilicum  durum), 
the  oats  (Avena  sativa),  the  barley  (Hordeum  vulgare),  the  rye  (Seeale 
cereale),  maize  (Zea  mays),  the  sorghums  (Andropogon  halepensis) ,  which 
includes  sorgo,  kaffir,  milo,  broom  corn,  shallu,  kowliang,  dura,  rice 
(Oryza  sativa),  wild  rice  (Zizania  aquatica,  Z.  palustris)  and  millet 
(Panicum  miliaceum). 

The  sugar-producing  grasses  are  the  sugar  cane  (Saccharum  officinal  urn) , 
maize  (Zea  mays)  and  Chinese  sugar-millet  (Sorghum  saccharatum) .  The 
medicinal  grasses  include  couch  grass  (Agropyronrepens),  the  dried  rhizome 
of  which  is  collected  in  the  spring,  and  a  fluid  extract  made  from  it  used 
as  a  domestic  remedy  in  fever,  jaundice,  gout,  etc.  Its  sole  employment 
to-day  is  as  a  gentle,  soothing  diuretic  in  acute  inflammations  of  the 
urinary  passages.  Other  grasses  have  somewhat  similar  diuretic  properties. 
The  edible  grasses  are  mainly  represented  by  the  species  of  bamboo  in 


ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  GRASSES  1 29 

China,  the  tops  of  which  are  used  as  vegetables.  Canned  bamboo  sprouts 
are  not  uncommonly  found  in  the  Chinese  grocery  stores  in  all  of  our  large 
cities. 

The  best  lawn  grasses  are  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  (Poa  pratensis), 
red-top  (Agrostis  alba  var.  vulgaris)  and  the  Rhode  Island  bent  grass 
(Agrostis  canina).  For  the  extreme  south,  Bermuda-grass  (Cynodon 
dactylon)  and  crab-grass  (Stenotaphrum  americanum}  are  the  best. 

The  grasses  which  are  suitable  for  the  edgings,  beds  and  borders  of  the 
garden  are  Provence  cane  (Arundo  donax,  A.  conspicua),  maize  (Zea  mays), 
pampas-grass  (Gynerium  argenttuni),  Eulalia,  ribbon-grass  (Phalaris 
arundinacea  var.  picta)  and  some  of  the  Japanese  bamboos  which  are 
hardy  in  northern  latitudes.  For  interior  decoration,  the  above  grasses 
can  be  cut  and  used  either  singly,  or  in  masses,  but  the  inflorescences  of 
the  seaside  oats  (Uniola  paniculata)  are  gathered  for  this  purpose  and  also 
the  tall  red  top  (Tridens  flavus),  reed  (Phragmites  communis),  reed 
meadow  grass  (Glyceria  septentrionalis)  and  others  which  can  be  tied  into 
bunches  and  placed  in  vases  and  other  receptacles.  The  holy  grass 
(Hierochloe  odorata)  is  manufactured  into  fragrant  baskets  by  the  eastern 
Indians  and  the  dried  bleached  straws  of  the  Kentucky  blue  grass  are 
woven  into  straw  hats.  The  marram  grass  (Ammophila  arenaria)  is 
the  most  important  species  for  the  binding  of  the  drifting  sands  of 
wandering  dunes. 

Paper  can  be  made  from  the  fibrous  matter  in  the  stems  of  a  number  of* 
grasses  principally  maize  from  which  a  very  good  grade  of  paper  can  be 
made.  Corn  stalks  have  not  been  used  extensively  in  this  country  as  yet 
for  paper,  but  with  the  fast  disappearing  spruce  forests  attention  will  no 
doubt  be  directed  to  maize  as  an  abundant  source  of  material  for  paper 
pulp.  Esparto  grass  (Macrochloa  tenacissima)  is  also  extensively  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper. 

In  the  tropics,  the  bamboos  of  the  larger  size  are  used  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.  They  are  used  as  the  upright  posts  and  rafters  in  house  con- 
struction. In  the  split  condition,  they  form  the  walls  and  partitions  of 
the  native  houses  and  bungalows.  They  are  used  for  roofing,  for  ram 
spouts,  for  water  pipes,  for  flower  pots,  for  buckets,  for  bridge  construction 
and  for  many  other  purposes.  The  various  species  of  bamboos  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  dwellers  of  the  tropical  countries  of  the  world. 

The  vetiver,  or  kus-kus,  is  the  very  sweet-scented  fibrous  root  of 
Andropogon  muricatus,  or  grass  of  India,  used  to  perfume  rooms  and  to 


130  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

preserve  clothing  from  the  attack  of  insects.  The  roots  are  made  into 
fans  and  worked  into  slips  of  bamboo  to  form  the  screens  used  to  mitigate 
the  heat  in  India. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CARRIER,  LYMAN:  The  Identification  of  Grasses  by  their  Vegetative  Characters.     Bull. 

461,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  January  19,  1917. 
CLARK,  GEO.  H.  and  WALTER,  M.  OSCAR:  Fodder  and  Pasture  Plants.     Department  of 

Agriculture,  Dominion  of  Canada,  Ottawa,  1913. 
LE  MAOUT,  EMM  and  DECAISNE,  J.,  transl.  by  MRS.  HOOKER:  A  System  of  Botany, 

Descriptive  and  Analytical.    London,  1873,  pages  880-892. 
LINDLEY,  JOHN:  The  Vegetable  Kingdom.    London,  1853,  pages  io6-n6&. 
RENDLE,  ALFRED  B. :  The  Classification  of  Plants.     Vol.  i,  Cambridge  at  the  University 

Press,  1904,  pages  220-241. 
ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.     A  Text  and  Reference  Book. 

P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1917,  pages  69-90. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

i.  As  this  part  of  the  botanical  study  will  come  in  the  early  spring  months  fresh 
grasses,  such  as  sweet  vernal  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum),  orchard  grass  (Dactylis 
glomerata),  perennial  rye  grass  (Lolium  perenne)  and  Kentucky  blue  grass  (Poa 
pratensis)  may  be  studied.  If  this  chapter  is  reached  in  the  dead  of  winter,  dried 
spikes  of  the  common  rye  or  any  other  large  grass  may  be  used  to  begin  the  study 
of  the  structure  of  the  grass  spikelet,  glumes,  lemma,  palea,  stamens,  ovary  and 
plumose  styles.  Whole  rye  plants,  or  other  suitable  grasses,  should  be  gathered  by  the 
teacher  just  before  the  stamens  protrude  from  the  chaffy  scales  of  the  spikelet. 
Several  hundred  plants  can  be  tied  together  with  string  and  the  bundle  wrapped  in 
newspaper  to  protect  the  plants  from  dust  and  hard  usage.  Such  dried  plants  are 
almost  as  satisfactory  for  a  detailed  study  of  the  rye  as  fresh  specimens.  Other 
grasses  preserved  in  a  similar  way  should  be  used  for  comparison  with  the  rye.  The 
drill  should  be  on  the  structure  of  the  spikelets  and  florets  of  each  kind.  Drawings 
should  be  made. 

2.  Kernels  of  corn,  wheat  and  oats  should  be  drawn  and  at  the  same  time  examined 
by  the  class.     Attention  should  be  drawn  to  all  of  the  points  in  the  external  morphology 
of  such  grains. 

3.  Cut  longitudinal  and  cross  sections  with  a  pen  knife  of  both  dry  and  soaked 
kernels  of  the  above  cereals  and  others,  if  time  permits.     Attention  should  be  drawn 
£o  the  varieties  of   corn  as   shown  in  section   for  starchy  oil  and  protein.     Treat 
the  cut  surfaces  with  iodine,  which  brings  out  nicely  the  relative  position  of  embryo 
and  reserve  starch. 

4.  The  class  should  be  provided  with  stained  sections  of  wheat  for  microscopic 
study  to  show  pericarp,  aleurone  layer  and  starchy  endosperm. 


CHAPTER  12 
DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS 

There  have  appeared  a  number  of  important  books  on  the  subject  of 
forage  plants,  and  as  these  books  are  readily  available  to  the  student  of 
agronomy,  no  attempt  will  be  made  in  the  following  pages  to  give  an 
exhaustive  treatment  of  the  forage  grasses.  The  object  will  be  to  give  a 
few  of  the  essential  details  for  the  benefit  of  the  student,  who  does  not 
expect  to  study  the  forage  plants  exhaustively,  but  yet  desires  to  have  an 
acquaintance  with  the  more  important  kinds. 

Timothy.  Herd's  Grass  (Phhum  pratense). — This  grass  was  intro- 
duced by  Timothy  Hansom  of  Maryland  from  England  in  1720,  hence 
the  common  name.  It  had  an  earlier  introduction  into  cultivation  by 
John  Herd,  who  found  it  growing  wild  in  New  Hampshire,  as  early  as 
1700. 

Description. — The  plant  is  perennial  with  short  rootstocks  and,  there- 
fore, it  has  a  somewhat  tufted  growth.  The  smooth  stems  are  from  two  to 
five  feet  tall  and  in  dry  soil  the  base  of  the  stem  may  be  slightly  bulbous. 
The  leaves  are  rolled  inward  at  first  from  one  side  and  then  are  later  ex- 
panded with  s^hort  blades.  The  inflorescence  is  a  close  spike  of  spikelets 
(Fig.  54).  The  spikelets  are  one-flowered.  Each  flower  is  subtended  by 
a  hyaline,  toothed,  awriless  lemma  and  a  narrow  hyaline  palet.  The 
subtending  glumes  of  the  spikelet  are  truncate  with  short  awns  and  cov- 
ered with  stiff  hairs.  The  caryopsis  is  ovoid  from  ^5  to  ^2  incn  m 
diameter,  usually  inclosed  in  the  lemma  and  palet  at  maturity.  There 
are  about  600,000  to  2,000,000  seeds  to  the  pound,  the  weight  varying 
with  the  size  of  the  seeds.  The  standard  of  germination  is  90  per  cent, 
and  the  purity  of  the  seed  should  be  not  less  than  98  per  cent. 

Soils. — Timothy  is  superior  to  any  other  grass  for  hay  and  it  is  well 
adapted  for  growth  on  cold,  moist,  or  wet  lands,  particularly  with  heavy 
clay  soils,  although  it  succeeds  best  on  moist  loams  and  clays.  It  is  not 
grown  successfully  on  some  soils,  or  in  shallow  soils  with  a  rocky  bed 
underneath.  This  grass  shows  innumerable  unrecognized  varieties  only 
three  or  four  of  which  are  of  agricultural  importance.  Although  the 


132 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


FIG.  54. — Timothy  (Phleum  pralense)  grown  in  hard,  dry  soil.     (After  Smith,  Jared  G. 
Meadows  and  Pastures — Farmers'  Bulletin  66,  1904,  p.  18.) 


DESCRIPTION    OF   IMPORTANT    GRASS    FORAGE   PLANTS  133 

plant  is  perennial,  there  are  biennial  forms  and  tall  annual  forms.     There 
is  also  a  great  range  in  the  time  of  blooming. 

Seeding. — The  customary  amount  of  timothy  seed  to  sow,  if  used 
alone  is  15  pounds,  or  one-third  of  a  bushel  per  acre.  If  red  clover  is  used 
with  timothy,  then  the  usual  amount  of  timothy  seed  is  9  pounds,  or  one- 
fifth  of  a  bushel  per  acre.  It  has  been  found  by  trial  that  better  results 
are  obtained  by  sowing  the  above  amount  than  twice  that  quantity.  The 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  recommends  for  meadows, 
the  following  per  acre: 

Timothy  seed 15  pounds 

Fancy  red  top 7.5  pounds 

Red  clover 7.5  pounds 

Rotations. — The  farmers  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central 
states  use  timothy  in  nearly  all  of  their  rotations.  The  most  common 
rotation  consists  of  maize,  oats  and  wheat  each  one  year,  followed  by 
timothy  and  red  clover  for  two  or  more  years,  the  clover  disappearing 
after  one  or  more  years.  Timothy  may  be  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the 
spring  with  any  small  grain  that  is  sown  at  the  time.  A  good  stand  will 
be  obtained  more  frequently  by  sowing  in  the  fall  except  in  the  dry  prairie 
states  of  the  northwest  where  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  spring 
sowing.  As  timothy  is  a  late  grass,  the  usual  time  of  cutting  is  in  July, 
and  this' is  an!?ad  vantage,  because  during  the  summer  it  cures  more 
quickly,  than  if  cut  earlier. 

Yield. — The  total  yield  of  dry  matter  per  acre  of  timothy  in  Connecti- 
cut, when  in  full  bloom,  was  3,300  pounds,  in  Illinois  3,285  pounds,  in 
Pennsylvania  2,585  pounds.  When  the  seed  was  nearly  ripe  the  yield 
per  acre  was  in  Connecticut  3,615  pounds,  in  Illinois  4,065  pounds,  in 
Pennsylvania  3,065  pounds.  Timothy  generally  produces  between  five 
and  twelve  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  The  grass  is  most  conveniently  cut 
with  the  self-binder  and  is  threshed  with  the  ordinary  threshing  machine, 
using  special  sieves  to  clean  the  seed.  Timothy  hay  contains  about 
6  per  cent,  protein,  45  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates,  2.5  per  cent,  of  fat  and 
29  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber,  of  these  substances  about  half  are  digestible. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  June  Grass  (Poa  pratensis). — This  useful  grass 
is  perennial  with  an  extensively  creeping  rhizome,  which  produces  leafy 
stems  in  bunches  at  intervals  along  its  length.  The  stem  of  blue  grass 
grows  from  18  inches  to  2^  feet  tall.  The  basal  leaves  are  longer  than 


134 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


the  upper  stem  leaves.  The  panicle  is  pyramidal  with  its  slender  remote 
branches  with  3  to  5  fascicles.  The  spikelets  are  crowded,  3-5  flowered. 
The  lemmas  are  cobwebby  at  the  base  (Fig.  55).  This  is  a  common  grass 
in  meadows  and  fields  throughout  the  United  States  and  in  British  Colum- 


FIG.  55. — Kentucky  blue  grass  (Poo  pratensis.)     (After  Ball,  Carleton  R.:  Winter  Forage 
Crops  for  the  South,  Farmers'  Bulletin  147,  1902,  p.  19.) 

bia.  It  is  naturalized  in  the  east,  but  is  indigenous  in  the  north  and  west. 
It  gets  its  name  Kentucky  blue  grass,  because  it  thrives  in  the  limestone 
soils  of  certain  districts  of  Kentucky,  which  on  this  account  are  cele- 
brated for  their  fine  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS     135 

Adaptability. — This  grass  and  its  congener  the  Canadian  blue  grass 
(Poa  compressa)  (Fig.  56)  are  adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  climate  with  30  in- 
ches of  rainfall  and  upward.  They  are  resistant  to  cold,  never  freezing 
out  in  zero  weather.  They  prefer  well-drained  loams,  or  clay  loams  some- 


PIG.  56. — Canada  blue  grass  (Poa  compressa);  a,  spikelet;  6,  floret;  c,  magnified 
view  of  cross  section  of  flattened  stem;  d,  magnified  cross  section  of  a  leaf  blade.  (After 
Smith,  Jared  G.:  Meadows  and  Pastures,  Farmers'  Bulletin,  66,  1904,  p.  24.) 

what  retentive  of  moisture,  but  are  not  well-suited  for  growth  in  sandy 
soils.  The  Canadian  blue  grass  will  grow  on  poorer  soils  than  the  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass.  The  blue  grasses  are  not  suitable  for  hay,  as  the  yield 
is  low,  but  as  pasture  grasses  and  for  the  construction  of  lawns,  they  are  un- 


136  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

excelled  in  the  temperate  regions  of  North  America.  They  are  valuable 
for  summer  pasture  and  winter  pasture,  and  if  used  for  the  latter  purpose 
they  should  not  be  closely  pastured  during  the  summer  months.  Drought 
inhibits  the  growth  of  Kentucky  blue  grass. 

Seeding. — The  number  of  seeds  per  pound  varies  from  2,185,000  to 
3,888,000.  Usually  40  pounds  of  commercial  seed  per  acre  is  sown  alone 
when  a  good  stand  is  desired.  It  is  usually  mixed  with  other  seeds  in  the 
formation  of  permanent  pasture.  The  following  is  the  usual  composition 
of  such  mixtures,  costing  about  $3  to  $4  per  acre. 

Timothy 15  pounds 

Kentucky  blue  grass 10  pounds 

Meadow  fescue 2  pounds 

Red  clover 8  pounds 

White  clover 2  pounds 

The  grass  seeds  of  such  a  mixture  are  sown  in  September  and  the  clover 
seeds,  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  In  the  construction  of  lawns  at 
least  40  pounds  of  50  per  cent,  viable  seed  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  should 
be  used  alone  or  with  white  clover.  In  another  formula  for  the  making 
of  lawns,  the  bulk  of  the  seed  used  is  Kentucky  blue  grass  mixed  with 
red-top  and  Rhode  Island  bent  grass.  The  advantage  of  using  several 
kinds  of  grass  is  that  the  first  comers  hold  possession  of  the  ground,  or  act 
as  a  nurse  crop,  until  the  stronger,  but  slower-growing,  Kentucky  blue 
grass  gets  complete  root  hold  when,  in  the  struggle  for  life,  the  earlier 
grasses  are  gradually  excluded.  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  considered  one  of 
the  most  troublesome  weeds  in  New  Zealand. 

Redtop  (Agrostis  alba). — This  native  grass  of  North  America  is  perhaps 
the  third,  or  fourth  most  important  perennial  grass  of  our  country.  The 
culms  are  a  foot  (3  dm.)  to  3  feet  (10  dm.)  tall  from  a  creeping  or  stolo- 
niferous  rootstock.  The  leaves  are  flat,  stiff  and  upright  to  lax  and 
spreading.  The  panicle  is  contracted  after  flowering  of  a  greenish,  purple, 
or  brown  color  with  its  branches  slightly  roughish.  The  spikelet  is  one- 
flowered.  The  lemmas  nearly  equal  the  glumes.  They  are  3-nerved, 
rarely  short  awned.  The  palea  are  one-half  to  two-thirds  as  long  as  the 
lemmas. 

The  variety  vulgaris  is  known  as  Herd's  Grass  in  Pennsylvania.  It 
has  shorter,  more  slender  culms  with  smaller  more  branching  panicles 
and  narrow  leaves.  The  variety  stoloniftra  (not  the  A.  stolonifera)  is  a 


DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS     137 

form  with  stoloniferous  habit  used  for  lawns  and  is  known  as  "creeping 
bent,"  Agrosiis  canina,  is  the  Rhode  Island  Bent  cultivated  also  as  a 
lawn  grass.  Redtop  resembles  superficially  Kentucky  blue  grass,  but  it 
is  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the  purple  color  of  the  panicle  and  the 
smaller  and  more  numerous  i-flowered  spikelets,  while  the  spikelets 
of  Poa  pratensis  are  3-  to  5-flowered.  Redtop  flowers  usually  a  month  to 
two  months  later  than  the  Kentucky  blue  grass.  The  seeds  of  redtop 
have  a  silvery  appearance,  one  pound  consisting  of  from  4,135,000  (Illi- 
nois Station)  to  6,400,000  (North  Carolina  Station). 

Sowing. — Redtop  seed  is  usually  sowed  in  amounts  from  6  to  30  pounds 
per  acre,  when  sown  alone,  and  6  to  10  pounds,  when  sown  with  timothy, 
or  timothy  and  red  clover.  It  should  be  sown  about  the  same  time  as 
timothy.  Like  Kentucky  blue  grass,  it  is  aggressive  and  frequently 
takes  full  possession  /of  the  land.  Redtop  thrives  under  a  greater  range 
of  climate  and  soil  than  any  other  cultivated  grass.  Its  value  as  a  hay 
crop  is  next  to  timothy.  It  is  adapted  to  low,  moist  lands  and  frequently 
forms  one  of  the  stages  in  the  succession  of  grass  herbage  on  old  abandoned 
wagon  tracts  across  grassland,  or  the  open  prairie.  It  will  grow  on  poor 
soil,  which  it  gradually  improves. 

Yield. — The  yield  of  hay  ranges  from  3,000  to  5,000  pounds  per  acre. 
If  harvested,  when  fully  mature,  it  makes  a  fibrous  and  unpalatable 
hay.  Analyses  show  that  redtop  hay  contains  more  nutrients  than 
timothy  hay. 

Orchard  Grass  (Dactylis  glomerata) . — Another  name  for  this  grass  in 
England  and  New  Zealand  is  cocksfoot.  This  grass  with  a  bluish-green 
cast  of  foliage  usually  grows  in  clumps,  as  a  bunch  grass  with  culms  8 
inches  to  2  feet  tall  and  broadly  linear  leaves.  The  spikelets  are  in  dense 
one-sided  clusters  in  close  panicles.  The  spikelets  are  2-5  flowered,  com- 
pressed, nearly  sessile  in  dense  fascicles.  The  lemmas  are  5-nerved  with 
ciliate  keels  and  are  short  awned.  The  palea  are  shorter  than  the  lemmas. 
(Fig.  57)- 

Seeding. — The  commercial  seeds  are  enclosed  in  the  chaff.  Orchard 
grass  can  be  purchased  with  100  per  cent,  purity.  The  number  of  seeds 
per  pound  may  vary  from  400,000  to  480,000.  When  sown  alone,  35 
pounds  of  seed  are  used  per  acre,  when  intended  for  hay,  and  15  pounds 
per  acre,  when  intended  for  seed.  It  may  be  seeded  either  in  the  fall 
or  very  early  in  the  spring,  but  whenever  sown,  it  rarely  gives  a  hay  crop 
the  first  year. 


138 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Cultivation.- — Orchard  grass  may  come  through  the  winter  unscathed 
by  the  cold,  but  it  is  susceptible  to  late  spring  frosts  after  it  has  begun  its 
growth.  It  grows  well  in  the  shade  and  grows  best  on  a  fairly  fertile, 
well-drained  soil.  It  requires  a  generous  supply  of  moisture,  but  can 
stand  periodic  droughts  fairly  well  and  its  duration  is  superior  to  timothy, 

when  used  for  hay  it  should  be 
cut  as  soon  as  it  is  in  full  bloom. 
Orchard  grass  is  abundant  about 
Philadelphia,  but  it  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  be  cultivated.  Spillman 
in  his  "Farm  Grasses  of  the 
United  States"  states  that  it  is 
relatively  most  extensively  culti- 
vated in  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  namely,  along  the 
southern  border  of  the  timothy 
region.  The  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  of  Arkansas  recom- 
mends the  use  of  orchard  grass 
for  permanent  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, as  the  best  grass  for  that 
purpose.  It  also  thrives  west  of 
the  Cascade  mountains  in  the 
Pacific  northwest. 

Meadow  Foxtail  (Alopecurus 
pratensis). — This  grass  resembles 
timothy,  for  which  it  is  sometimes 
taken  by  the  uninitiated,  but  its 
stems  are  not  so  tall,  its  heads 
are  shorter,  and  it  blooms  fully  a 
month  earlier  than  timothy.  It 
grows  1-3  feet  tall  and  develops 
short,  creeping  rhizomes.  The 

sheaths  of  its  leaves  are  loose,  the  upper  usually  inflated.  The  spike- 
lets  are  i-flowered,  flattened.  The  lemma  equals  the  acute,  ciliate 
glumes  with  an  exserted  awn.  The  seed  is  produced  sparingly,  is  of  poor 
vitality,  and  therefore,  costly.  The  number  of  seeds  per  pound  is 
1,216,000,  and  most  of  the  commercial  seed  comes  from  abroad. 


PIG.  57. — Orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glome- 
rata) .  (After  Ball,  Carleton  R. :  Winter  Forage 
Crops  for  the  South,  Farmers'  Bulletin  147, 
1902,  p.  21.) 


DESCRIPTION    OF    IMPORTANT    GRASS   FORAGE    PLANTS  139 

Growth  and  Hay. — It  grows  best  on  good  soils  and  it  is  the  chief  grass 
of  the  richer  natural  pastures  of  Great  Britain.  It  reaches  maturity  two,  or 
three  years  after  sowing  and  growing  best  in  wet  meadows,  where  it  is  to 
be  ranked,  as  one  of  the  earliest  pasture  grasses  to  start  its  growth  in  the 
spring.  The  hay  of  meadow  foxtail  is  sweet  and  nutritive,  especially 
before  the  formation  of  seed,  as  the  sugar  is  drawn  from  stem  and  leaves 
and  is  used  in  the  formation  of  the  reserve  materials  of  the  seeds.  It 
forms  when  grown  an  abundance  of  excellent  pasture  and  all  kinds  of 
stock  like  it. 

Smooth  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  inermis). — This  is  a  grass  of  recent 
introduction,  perennial  by  a  creeping  rootstock.  The  stems  are  stout  form- 
ing heavy  clumps,  but  when  the  soil  is  seeded  abundantly  these  clumps 
unite  to  form  a  compact  sod.  The  roots  penetrate  deeply,  hence  this 
grass  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climatic  conditions.  The  panicles  are 
large  and  with  spreading  branches.  The  spikelets  are  one  inch  long  and 
brownish-red  when  old.  Each  spikelet  has  from  seven  to  nine  flowers, 
each  enclosed  by  two  more  or  less  blunt  scales.  The  lemmas  are  without 
awns. 

Smooth  Brome  Grass  thrives  on  loose  comparatively  poor  land, 
where  more  valuable  grasses  might  be  a  failure.  It  is  valued  because  of 
its  drought-resisting  qualities  producing  in  dry  summers  more  green  forage 
than  any  other  grass.  It  is  adapted  to  western  Canada  on  account  of  its 
hardiness.  It  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre.  It*  should  be  cut  before  'flowering,  as  it  becomes  hard  and  less 
palatable.  The  smooth  brome  grass  has  been  grown  for  centuries  upon 
the  steppes  of  Russia,  hence  it  is  adapted  to  a  cold  climate  and  a  dry  soil. 

Blue-Joint  Grass  (Calamagrostis  canadensis) . — The  blue-joint  grass  is 
a  perennial  with  creeping  rhizome  which  gives  rise  to  culms  1-3  feet  high 
with  a  clustered  habit.  The  leaves  are  very  rough,  glaucous,  flat  and 
involute  in  drying.  The  panicle  is  spreading  with  the  i -flowered  spike- 
lets  on  slender  branches  and  of  a  reddish-brown  color.  The  glumes  are 
equal,  acute,  scarcely  longer  than  the  lemma,  which  has  an  inconspicuous 
awn.  The  callus  hairs  are  copious  about  as  long  as  the  floret.  This  grass 
is  a  native  of  wet  places  from  eastern  Quebec  to  New  Jersey  and  westward 
and  it  flowers  from  June  to  July.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  red  top 
by  its  awned  lemma  and  the  tuft  of  white  silky  hairs  in  each  spikelet. 

Blue-joint  sometimes  occupies  large  areas  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
grasses.  Hay  made  from  it  is  of  excellent  quality  and  much  relished  by 


I40  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

stock.  Attempts  to  grow  the  grass  experimentally  at  one  of  the  agricult- 
ural experiment  stations  met  with  failure,  because  most  of  the  seeds  were 
found  to  lack  vitality.  Little  is  known  about  the  feeding  value  of  blue- 
joint  grass.  It  is,  however,  of  special  value  for  places  with  very  wet  soil. 

Fescue  Grasses  (Festuca  elatior  and-F.  ovind). — The  taller,  or  meadow 
fescus  is  Festuca  elatior  ( —  Festuca  pratensis)  and  the  sheep's  fescue  is  F. 
ovina.  The  first  mentioned  grass  is  the  most  important  of  the  two  species. 
It  is  a  perennial  grass  with  long  fibrous  roots  with  its  erect  culms  reaching  a 
height  of  15  inches  to  two  feet.  The  basal  leaves  have  a  shining  surface 
and  an  intense,  green  color,  while  the  stem  leaves  are  flat,  not  involute, 
as  in  the  sheep's  fescue.  The  panicle  is  rather  close  with  its  branches 
bearing  spikelets  nearly  to  its  base.  The  spikelets  have  lanceolate 
glumes,  oblong-lanceolate  lemmas,  rarely  short  awned  and  scabrous  at 
the  apex.  This  grass  is  native  to  the  meadows  and  waste  places  through- 
out the  United  States  and  southern  Canada,  naturalized  from  Europe 
and  flowering  from  June  to  August. 

Sheep's  fescue,  which  has  been  introduced  from  Europe  and  has 
become  naturalized  in  a  few  localities  in  the  United  States,  is  a  fine-tex- 
tured, small-growing  species  with  a  tufted  habit,  eaten  by  sheep  quite 
freely,  but  avoided  by  cattle,  if  other  grasses  are  more  available. 

Meadow  fescue  was  early  used  as  a  constituent  of  the  pasture  mix- 
tures sold  by  seedmen  and  in  this  way  it  has  been  widely  distributed 
through  the  United  States.  Sown  alone  it  furnishes  scant  pasturage 
during  the  hot  summer  months  and  the  absence  of  rootstocks  prevents  its 
successful  competition  with  Kentucky  blue-grass.  It  is,  however,  ap- 
preciated in  a  few  localities,  such  as  the  eastern  parts  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  where  it  has  proved  one  of  the  best  pasture  grasses.  It  does 
well  in  wet  places  and  survives  the  trampling  by  stock.  It  grows  suc- 
cessfully on  clay  soils,  although  the  soil  best  adpoted  to  the  growth  of  the 
grass  is  on  heavy  black  loam.  The  grass  is  seeded  10-15  pounds  to  the 
acre  from  August  15  to  September  15,  without  the  use  of  a  nurse  crop. 
It  should  be  utilized  more  largely  in  the  pasture  mixtures  of  the  east- 
central  states. 

Sweet  Vernal  Grass  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum). — This  is  a  common, 
perennial  grass  of  the  meadows,  pastures  and  waste  lands  in  eastern 
United  States.  Agriculturally  speaking  it  is  a  grass  of  secondary  im- 
portance, growing  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  tall  with  close  spike-like 
panicles  and  3-flowered  spikelets  with  the  terminal  flower  perfect  and  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS 


141 


two  lower  florets  represented  solely  by  a  lemma  with  a  long  basally  at- 
tached awn.  It  flowers  early  in  the  season. 

The  dried  grass  has  a  characteristic,  sweet  odor  due  to  the  presence 
of  cumarin  which  has  been  extracted  from  this  and  several  other  plants 
and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  perfume  called  "new  mown  hay."  Cows 
feeding  upon  this  grass  have  a 
grassy  flavor  imparted  to  the 
milk  and  the  butter  made  from 
the  milk.  It  was  early  intro- 
duced into  America  from  Europe, 
where  it  is  native,  as  also  in 
western  and  north  Asia  and 
northern  Africa. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass  (Lolium 
percnne)  and  Italian  Rye  Grass 
(L.  italium)  ( =  L.  multiflorum) 
are  both  of  them  short-lived, 
rapid-growing,  perennial  grasses 
with  a  tufted  habit  due  to  the 
intravaginal  method  of  branch- 
ing. Perennial  rye  grass  may 
persist  two  or  more  years,  while 
Italian  rye  grass  rarely  lasts  more 
than  two  years.  The  axis  of  in- 
florescences of  the  perennial  rye 
grass  is  smooth  with  the  several 
flowered  spikelets  set  solitarily  in 
alternate  notches  of  the  axis  of 

inflorescence   with   the  edges  of 

FIG.    58. — Perennial     rye     grass     (Lolium 
each  Spikelet  placed   against   the  perenne).     (After    Ball,     Carleton     R.:    Winter 

rachis,  so  that  the  inner  glume  Foraze  Cr°Ps  f°r  the  South>  Farmers'  Bulletin 

....  _,,  i  •          •     X47.  1902.  p.  21.) 

is  lacking.     The  outer  glume  is 

rigid  exceeding  the  lower  florets  '(Fig.  58).  The  lemma  of  each  floret 
is  awnless,  while  in  the  Italian  rye  grass  the  lemma  is  provided  with 
an  awn.  The  foliage  of  the  Italian  rye  grass  is  more  abundant  and  the 
plant  grows  considerably  taller. 

Sowing  and  Adaptation. — Both  species  produce  seed  abundantly  and 
germination  of  commercial  seed  is  about  75  per  cent.     There  are  336,000 


I42  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

seeds  of  perennial  rye  grass  per  pound  and  285,000  of  Italian  rye  grass. 
The  farmer  sows  about  50  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  when  sown  alone,  but 
the  perennial  rye  grass  is  usually  sown  in  mixture  with  other  grass  seeds. 
Italian  rye  grass  is  adapted  to  moist  regions  with  mild  winters.  It 
succeeds  best  on  loam  and  sandy  loose  soils  being  adapted  for  hay  pur- 
poses and  may  be  cut  several  times  during  the  growing  period.  It  can 
stand  considerable  drought,  but  it  is  not  a  suitable  grass  for  districts  where 
the  summer  is  dry  and  hot,  and  hence,  it  will  never  assume  any  import- 
ance in  the  prairie  regions. 

Belonging  to  the  same  group  is  the  tares  of  the  Bible,  or  bearded  darnel, 
Lolium  ttmulentum,  adventive  from  Europe  but  rare  in  grain  fields  and 
waste  places. 


PIG.  59. —  Sand  dune  covered  with  marram  grass  (Ammophila  arenaria),  Gilgo  Beach 
South  Shore,  Long  Island,  July  8,  1914. 

Marram  Grass  (Ammophila  arenaria). — A  description  of  this  grass  is 
given  here  because  of  its  unusual  interest  as  a  sand-binding  plant.  It  is 
found  on  the  sandy  beaches  and  sand  dunes  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
New  Brunswick  to  North  Carolina  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  in  Europe  (Fig.  59).  It  is  a  coarse,  wiry  perennial  with  a  long 
creeping  root-stock  from  which  tufts  of  branches  and  green  leaves  arise  at 
intervals  in  the  growth  of  the  rootstock  through  the  mobile  sand.  As 
rapidly  as  the  green  parts  are  buried  by  the  shifting  sand  the  rhizome  grows 
in  length  upward  toward  the  surface  giving  rise  to  fresh  aerial  shoots. 
This  spreading  habit  results  in  the  plant  presenting  an  obstacle  to  the 
movement  of  the  dune  sands,  so  that  as  the  growth  of  the  marram  grass 


DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS 


143 


becomes  more  matted,  the  sands  are  effectually  anchored  (Fig.  60).  In 
the  latter  part  of  August  and  early  September,  the  pale,  straw-yellow 
spike  of  spikelets  grow  up  from  the  subterranean  stem.  It  is  propagated 
for  sand-binding  purposes  by  cutting  the  plant  up  into  lengths,  between 
the  widely  separated  tufts,  which  are  planted  out  in  rows  along  with  other 
protective  devices.  This  method  of  fixing  the  wandering  dunes  has  been 
used  for  many  years  on  the  Baltic  coasts  of  Europe,  in  Holland,  in  Bel- 
gium, on  Cape  Cod  and  elsewhere  with  satisfactory  results. 


FIG.  60. — Sand  dune  with  marram  grass  (Ammophila  arenarid)  and  beach  pea  (Lalhyrus 
maritimus),  Gilgo  Beach,  South  Shore,  Long  Island,  July  8,  1914. 

Seaside  Oats  (Uniola  paniculata). — This  stout  grass  is  found  on  the 
sand  hills  and  drifting  sands  of  the  American  coast  from  Virginia  to  Florida 
and  westward  to  Texas,  where  it  produces  a  stout  panicle  bearing  many 
oblong-oval,  stramineous  spikelets.  These  panicles  are  gathered  by  the 
people  of  such  cities  as  Wilmington,  N.  C.  and  Charlestown,  S.  C.  for 
decoration,  being  usually  placed  in  vases  for  that  purpose  (Fig.  61).  This 
grass  to  a  certain  extent  takes  the  place  of  the  marram  grass  in  binding 
the  sand  of  southern  sea  beaches  and  sand  dunes.  The  description  of  this 
grass  introduces  us  to  a  few  additional  species  of  grasses  which  are  especi- 
ally useful  in  the  southern  states.  These  grasses  are: 


i44 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Bermuda  Grass  (Cynodon  Dactylori). — It  is  the  most  common  and  most 
valuable  pasture  grass  of  the  southern  states  filling  the  same  relative  place 
in  that  region  that  Kentucky  blue  grass  does  in  more  northern  states. 
It  is  a  perennial  grass  spreading  by  runners,  or  by  rootstocks,  and  is  pro- 
pagated also  by  seeds.  The  runners  vary  in  length  from  a  few  inches  to 
three  or  four  feet,  creeping  over  the  ground  and  rooting  at  the  joints 
(Fig.  62).  The  blades  of  the  leaves  are  narrow,  flat,  one  to  four  inches 
long,  each  with  a  ring  of  white  hairs  at  the  base.  The  slender  flower 
spikes  are  formed  three  to  six  in  a  cluster  radiating  out  from  a  common 
stalk  in  a  digitate  manner.  Each  spike  is  one  to  two  inches  long. 


FIG.  61. — Seaside  oat  (Uniola  paniculata)  on  dune  at  Wrightsville  Beach,  Wilming- 
ton,.N.  C.,  August  6,  1911. 


Origin. — Bermuda  grass  is  probably  a  native  of  India  having  been 
introduced  to  America  somewhere  about  1807,  and  it  is  now  common  in 
the  southern  states  from  Virginia  to  Florida  westward  to  Arizona  and 
California.  In  Australia,  it  is  commonly  known  as  couch,  or  Indian 
couch.  It  grows  best  in  warm  weather  bearing  the  intense  heat  of  summer 
without  injury,  but  winter  kills  easily  if  subjected  to  heavy  freezing. 
It  thrives  best  on  fertile  soils  not  too  wet,  but  better  on  heavy  soils  than 
on  light  ones.  It  will  grow  well  on  soils  so  alkaline  that  most  other  field 
crops  and  fruit  crops  will  fail. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   IMPORTANT    GRASS   FORAGE   PLANTS 


145 


Seeding. — Bermuda  grass  produces  seed  abundantly  in  southern 
California,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  where  most  of  the  commercial 
seed  is  derived.  It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  or  pieces  of  rootstocks.  The 
yield  of  hay  varies  greatly  with 
the  locality  in  which  it  is 
grown,  and  on  favorable  soils, 
it  may  yield  annually  6  to  8 
tons  of  hay  per  acre.  On 
soils  of  ordinary  fertility,  it  will 
support  about  one  steer  per 
acre  for  eight  to  nine  months, 
while  on  exceptionally  favor- 
able soils  it  may  support  four 
or  five  steers  for  a  longer  time. 
Its  feeding  value  is  fully  equal 
to  that  of  timothy,  though  its 
market  value  is  usually  less. 
Frequently,  it  becomes  trouble- 
some as  a  weed,  when  it  can 
be  eradicated  by  freezing  the 
"roots,"  or  by  shading  the 
ground  by  the  growth  of  other 
crops. 

Johnson  Grass  (Sorghum 
liaiepense). — This  is  another 
grass  which  figures  largely  in 
the  agriculture  of  the  southern 
states.  It  is  strongly  stoloni- 
ferous  with  culms  four  to  seven 
feet  high  with  long  flat  leaves, 
and  an  open  panicle  six  to 

eighteen    inches  long.      It  was          PIG.  62.— Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  Dactylon). 
introduced  as  AleDDO  grass  from     (After  Bal1'  Carleton  R. :  Winter  Forage  Crops  for 

the  South,  Farmers'  Bulletin  147,  1902,  p.  15.) 

Turkey  in  1830  by  Governor 

Means  into  South  Carolina,  and  in  1844  into  Alabama  by  Col.  William 
Johnson  for  whom  the  plant  is  named.  It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  and 
if  it  is  desired  to  control  the  plant,  which  sometimes  becomes  trouble- 
some, it  should  never  be  permitted  to  go  to  seed.  It  is  distributed  as 
10 


i46 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


an  avivectent,  because  the  hard,  outer  covering  of  the  seed  is  indigestible 
and  passes  through  the  digestive  tract  of  cattle  unchanged.  It  produces 
a  large  amount  of  good  hay  with  an  excellent  quality.  Usually  two  to 


FIG.  63. — Broom-corn  millet  (Panicum  miliaceum):  a,  b,  and  c,  views  of  the  spikelet 
and  glumes,  or  chaff;  d  and  e,  two  views  of  the  "seed."  (After  Williams,  Thomas  A.: 
Millets,  Farmers'  Bulletin  101,  1899,  p  20.) 

three  cuttings  can  be  secured.     It  is  not  especially  valuable  as  a  pasture 
grass,  because  it  does  not  stand  grazing  well. 

Guinea  Grass  (Panicum  maximum). — This  is  an  important  fodder 
grass  in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico  and  other  tropical  countries  where  it 


DESCRIPTION    OF    IMPORTANT    GRASS   FORAGE   PLANTS 


is  grown  as  a  soiling  crop.  It  is  a  perennial  grass,  but  its  roots  are  killed, 
if  the  ground  is  frozen.  It  has  short  rhizomes  from  which  immense 
tufts  of  leafage  are  formed.  It  may  be  grown  in  Florida  and  the  Gulf 
states,  where  the  climatic  con- 
ditions are  favorable.  It  is  not 
unusual  in  Mexico  to  see  burros 
almost  completely  buried  out  of 
sight,except  theirears  and  noses, 
with  guinea  grass,  which  is 
being  carried  to  the  nearest 
markets  for  sale.  Sometimes 
ox  carts  are  used  to  convey  the 
guinea  grass  to  the  consumers. 
Hay  is  also  obtained  from  the 
grass,  although  it  is  seldom 
used  for  the  purpose.  Another 
important  species  of  Panicum  is 
P.  miliaceum,  the  broom-corn 
millet  (Fig.  63). 

Foxtail  Millet  (Chaetochloa 
italica}. — This  grass  includes  a 
number  of  different  types  such 
as  the  Hungarian  (Fig.  64), 
Aino,  German  and  Siberian 
millets. 

The  following  two  grasses 
are  natives  of  the  western 
plains  states.  They  were  used 
extensively  by  the  wild  herds 
of  buffalos  and  eaten  by  the 
cattle  upon  a  thousand  ranches. 

They  will  figure  largely  in  any  FlG  64  _A  single  plant  of  Hungarian  millet 
attempt  at  restocking  the  cattle  (Chaetochloa  italica).  (After  Vinail,  H.  Ar- 
ranges with  forage  plants. 

Grama  Grass  (Bouteloua  gracilis  =  B.  oligostachya). — This  grass  also 
called  blue  grama  is  found  on  the  plains  and  prairies  from  Manitoba  and 
Wisconsin  to  Mississippi,  Arizona  and  Mexico.  It  is  probably  the  most 
important  of  the  grama  grasses,  which  include  six  weeks'  grama  (B. 


148 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


aristoides)  side-oat  grama  (B.  curtipendula)  black  grama  (B.  eriopoda) 
rough  grama  (B.  hirsuta)  hairy  grama  (B.  Parryi)  and  other  species  of  the 
genus.  It  forms  very  dense  sod  and  withstands  the  trampling  of  cattle 
to  a  marked  degree.  It  seems  to  grow  more  successfully  when  grazed 
and  trampled  to  some  extent,  and  under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  it 
may  grow  sufficiently  thick  to  be  used  as  a  hay  grass.  It  is  everywhere 
on  the  mesas  and  prairies  forming  a  dense  mass  of  herbage  of  fine  and 
curly  leaves  arising  from  near  the  roots  of  the  plant.  The  flowers  bearing 
stems  are  6  to  18  inches  tall  and  bear  near  then-  summits  two  to  three  one- 
sided spikes  in  form  like  a  tooth  brush.  This  grass  is  easily  propagated 
by  seed  which  can  readily  be  collected. 

The  side-oat  grama  is  another  common  species  and  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  the  true  gramas  ranging  from  the  Atlantic  states  west- 
ward to  Arizona  and  south  into  Mexico.  It  is  a  conspicuous  and  impor- 
tant pasture  grass  in  the  rougher  portions  of  the  plain  regions  and  in 
southern  Arizona,  it  grows  at  altitudes  mainly  between  3,003  and  5,000 
feet.  The  following  analytical  table  gives  the  composition  of  this  grass. 


Water-free  Basis  (Per  cent.) 


Material  Analyzed 

age  of 
Moisture 

Ash 

Ether 
Extract 

Crude 
Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
Extract 

Protein 

Pen- 
tasans 

Santa  Rita  Mts.,  Ariz.  .  . 

4.60 

8.3I 

1-59 

32-49 

53-28 

4-33 

25-88 

Average  of  5  others  

.... 

9.76 

l.85 

37.76 

45-05 

5.58 

Average  of  all  

9-63 

I   94 

32.86 

49-23 

6-34 

Buffalo  Grass  (Bulbilis  (Buchloe)  dactyloidts). — This  pasture  grass  is 
found  from  the  Dakotas  to  the  Rocky  mountains  and  south  into  Mexico. 
It  is  a  creeping,  stoloniferous,  turf-forming,  perennial  grass  giving  rise  to 
more  or  less  curly  leaves.  The  flower-bearing  shoots  are  four  inches  to  a 
foot  tall  and  strictly  dioecious.  The  staminate  spikes  usually  overtop  the 
leaves,  while  the  pistillate  spikes  are  shorter  than  the  leaves.  The 
staminate  spikelets  are  2-3  flowered.  Pistillate  spikelets  are  i-flowered 
with  indurated  glumes,  trifid  at  the  apex.  The  lemma  is  narrow,  hyaline 
inclosing  the  2-nerved  palea.  The  grain  is  free  within  the  hardened 
glumes.  The  seedling  plants  are  monoecious,  but  the  staminate  and  pistil- 


DESCRIPTION    OF    IMPORTANT   GRASS   FORAGE   PLANTS 


149 


late  branches  produce  vegetatively  male  and  female  plants  as  offshoots. 
It  is  a  very  hardy  grass  and  it  seems  to  be  indifferent  to  drought.  On  the 
dry  plains,  it  seldom  grows  over  two  to  four  inches  tall,  but  in  southern 
Texas,  where  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  are  more  favorable,  it  may 
become  a  foot  high.  It  dry  cures  and  furnishes  in  the  (fry  state  excellent 
winter  grazing. 

The  following  table  gives  the  composition  of  buffalo  grass. 


Water-free  Basis  (.Per  cent) 


Material  Analyzed 

age  of 
Moisture 

Ash 

Ether 
Extract 

Crude 
Fiber 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
Extract 

Protein 

Pen- 
tasans 

Belle  vue,  Texas.  .  .  . 

6  18 

10  25 

I    23 

25  .  74 

57.08 

5  •  7° 

2O.  56 

Average  of  6  others  

iQ-55 

2.26 

25.22 

54-35 

7.62 

10.51 

2.  II 

25.29 

54-74 

7-35 

Short  Grass  Vegetation. — A  few  words  as  to  the  growth  of  these  two 
grasses  from  an  agricultural-ecological  standpoint.  Representing  the 
most  typical  form  of  the  short-grass  formation  in  eastern  Colorado,  the 
grama-buffalo-grass  association  presents  an  appearance  of  extreme  mono- 
tony, according  to  H.  L.  Shantz.  The  plant  cover  is  uniform  and  carpet- 
like  in  some  places  covering  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground  in  other  places 
broken  into  alternating  areas  of  open  ground  and  dense  mat-like  cover. 
The  amount  of  soil  surface  covered  varies  from  as  low  as  10  per  cent,  to  as 
high  as  90  per  cent.,  and  the  growth  is  the  closest  where  there  is  a  mixture 
of  the  two  dominant  grasses.  When  grama  grass  predominates  there  is 
an  open-mat  type  of  vegetation.  A  variety  of  other  species,  annual  and 
perennial,  are  mixed  with  the  grama  and  buffalo  grasses  and  seasonally 
give  some  variety  to  the  short-grass  formation. 

Short-grass  vegetation  is  an  indicator  of  rather  short  season  favorable 
for  growth.  Grama  grass  requires  approximately  sixty  days  to  mature  and 
often  fails  to  ripen  its  seed,  largely  because  of  insufficient  water  supply. 
Buffalo  grass  usually  flowers  and  fruits  early  in  the  season,  but  when  the 
early  season  is  dry  its  fruiting  may  occur  at  any  time  during  the  summer 
when  the  water  supply  is  sufficient.  The  principal  adaptation  of  these 
grasses,  according  to  H.  L.  Shantz,  seems  in  their  ability  to  dry  out,  as 


150  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

do  many  lichens  and  mosses,  and  to  revive  quickly  when  water  is  again 
supplied.  During  periods  of  excessive  precipitation,  both  species  of 
grasses  grow  and  fruit  luxuriantly.  These  short  grasses  have  a  very 
extensive  surface-root  system  and  are  especially  adapted  to  conditions 
found  in  the  Great  Plains  region.  After  a  slight  rain,  when  only  the  first 
few  inches  of  the  soil  becomes  wet,  these  plants  are  able  to  absorb  water 
and  grow.  Ordinarily  grazing  does  not  modify  appreciably  the  short- 
grass  cover.  It  seems  to  favor  the  development  of  the  short -grass. 
Grass  fires,  if  repeated,  kill  out  the  buffalo  grass,  but  apparently  grama 
grass  suffers  little.  Extensive  grazing  causes  the  reversion  of  the  short- 
grass  stage  to  an  earlier  stage  in  the  succession  where  Gutierrezia  sarothrce. 
and  Attmisia  frigida  become  dominant. 

The  presence  of  a  short-grass  cover  indicates  a  growing  season  that  is 
shortened  by  the  limitation  of  the  water  supply.  Crops  which  mature 
early  are,  therefore,  more  likely  to  succeed  on  this  type  of  land  than  crops 
which  require  a  longer  season,  such  land  is  not  adapted  at  all  to  deep- 
rooted  crops  unless  the  plants  are  grown  far  apart. 

The  above  descriptions  of  a  number  of  important  agricultural  grasses 
does  not  exhaust  the  list  of  native  and  introduced  grasses,  which  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  our  wide  domain  figure  largely  in  the  composition  of  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  inclosed  meadows  of  the  eastern  states  and  the  open  wild 
ranges  of  the  western  states.  A  detailed  account  of  all  these  grasses  and 
their  life  histories  would  fill  a  large  volume. 


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SAMPSON,  ARTHUR  W.:  Range  Improvement  by  Deferred  and  Rotation  Grazing. 
Bulletin  34,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1913;  Important  Range  Plants, 
their  Life  History  and  Forage  Value.  Bulletin  545,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1917;  Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management.  Bulletin 
791,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1919. 

SHANTZ,  H.  L. :  Natural  Vegetation  as  an  Indicator  of  the  Capabilities  of  Land  for  Crop 
Production  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.  Bulletin  201,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1911. 

TRACY,  S.  M. :  Some  Important  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  for  the  Gulf  Coast  Region. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  300,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1907;  Forage  Crops  for 
the  Cotton  Region.  Farmers'  Bulletin  509,  1912;  Bermuda  Grass.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  814,  1917. 

VINALL,  H.  N.:  Meadow  Fescue,  its  Culture  and  Uses.  Farmers'  Bulletin  361.  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1909;  Foxtail  Millet,  its  Culture  and  Utilization  in 
the  United  States.  Farmers'  Bulletin  793,  1917. 

WILLIAMS,  THOMAS  A.:  Timothy  in  the  Prairie  Region.  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1896,  147-154;  Sorghum  as  a  Forage  Crop.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  50,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1897. 

WITTE,  HERNFRID:  Breeding  Timothy  at  Svalof.  Journal  of  Heredity,  x:  291-299, 
October,  1919. 

WOODWARD,  T.  E.  and  OTHERS  :  The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
556,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1913. 

WOOTON,  E.  O.:  Factors  Affecting  Range  Management  in  New  Mexico.  Bulletin  211, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 

YERKES,  ARNOLD  P.  and  McCLURE,  H.  B.:  Harvesting  Hay  with  the  Sweep-rake. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  838,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1917. 

YODER,  P.  A.:  Growing  Sugar  Cane  for  Sirup.  Farmers'  Bulletin  1034,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1919. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  IMPORTANT  GRASS  FORAGE  PLANTS     153 

Laboratory  Work 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — As  previously  emphasized,  the  teacher  should  provide 
the  material  for  laboratory  work  and  demonstration  some  time  in  advance.  The 
material  for  study  should  consist  of  fresh  dried  and  alcoholic  specimens.  If  the  ground 
around  the  laboratory  permits,  a  grass  garden  should  be  started,  where  at  least  all 
of  the  more  important  grasses  used  in  the  class  work  should  be  grown  in  plots.  Al- 
though most  of  this  fresh  material  can  be  used  only  during  the  growing  season,  some  of  it, 
especially  the  underground  parts,  can  be  secured  if  the  ground  is  not  frozen  too  hard 
during  the  winter  months.  The  alcoholic  and  dried  specimens  should  represent 
either  whole  or  parts  of  the  plants.  Fruits  of  all  the  species  studied  should  also  be  on 
hand  for  examination.  Photographs  and  illustrations  of  other  kinds,  wall  charts  and 
maps  of  distribution  will  prove  useful.  Moving  pictures  of  agricultural  operations, 
such  as  seed  sowing,  mowing,  haying  operations,  etc.,  will  prove  of  great  value,  if  the 
laboratory  is  equipped  with  all  of  these  modern  pieces  of  apparatus.  As  many  of  the 
above  mentioned  grasses  are  cultivated  in  all  civilized  countries  or  have  escaped  from 
cultivation  the  teacher,  wherever  he  or  she  may  be  located,  need  not  suffer  for  lack  of 
material. 

Laboratory  Exercises 

1.  Describe  and  draw  the  specimens  of  grasses  handed  to  you  for  study.     The 
examination  of  the  grass  flower  can  only  be  accomplished  successfully  by  the  use  of  a 
hand  lens,  or  a  dissecting  microscope.     The  equipment  of  the  laboratory  presupposes 
that  each  student  has  access  to  such  a  microscope.     The  dried  grasses  for  study  can  be 
mounted  by  the  teacher  on  stiff  card  boards  covered  with  thin  sheets  of  gelatin,  or  what 
is  better  the  specimens  themselves  can  be  presented  to  the  students  for  preservation. 

2.  Each  student  will  have  assigned  a  single  grass  species  to  study  in  the  field,  as 
it  grows,  and  with  reference  to  the  literature  dealing  with  this  plant  species.     This 
will  necessitate  reference  to  the  books,  cyclopedias,  bulletins  and  other  sources  of  in- 
formation available  »n  the  library  of  the  institution,  or  if  the  laboratory  is  in  a  large 
city,  the  libraries  of  the  scientific  institutions  which  may  be  located  there.     A  written 
report  should  be  handed  to  the  teacher  as  a  result  of  each  investigation.     This  is  a 
piece  of  home  work  which  should  be  a  part  of  every  course  in  botany,  as  it  indicates 
to  the  students  the  sources  of  the  information  about  the  plants  with  which  the  class 
deals.     It  also  indicates  how  knowledge  is  acquired  about  books  and  the  objects  of 
nature.     It  trains  the  student  for  future  investigation  and  conduces  to  originality. 

3.  A  comparative  study  of  the  grain  fruits,  or  caryopses  of  the  different  grasses 
should  be  a  part  of  the  laboratory  training.     The  writer  has  used  a  set  of  six  paste- 
board cards  perforated  with  round  holes  an  inch  in  diameter.     These  cards  are  backed 
with  a  stiff  piece  of  gray  pasteboard.     The  students  are  given  the  different  agricultural 
seed  grass  caryopses,  leguminous,  weed  and  poisonous  seeds  to  the  number  of  forty- 
eight.     These  are  filled  into  the  circular  holes  made  as  above  described.     The  eight  holes 
each  with  a  different  seed  are  then  covered  by  a  single  piece  of  glass  usually  the  size  of 
lantern  slide  covers.     The  glass  is  then  bound  to  the  two  separate  pieces  of  card- 
board by  passe-partout  tape  usually  black  in  color.     The  six  sets  of  eight  seeds  each 


154  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

are  then  kept  in  a  pasteboard  box  with  a  front  which  can  drop  down  and  a  lid  hinged 
to  the  back  of  the  box.  Such  sets  have  been  mounted  for  a  number  of  years  by  students 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  but  the  writer  has  given  up  this  method  in 
favor  of  the  distribution  of  48  aluminium-capped  vials  in  which  the  agricultural  seeds 
wih1  be  kept.  Tape  labels,  such  as  are  used  for  attachment  to  envelopes  with  the  re- 
turn address  will  be  printed  with  the  scientific  and  common  name  of  each  poisonous, 
grass,  leguminous  and  weed  seed.  These  can  be  readily  pasted  on  the  vials,  when  the 
seeds  are  distributed  to  the  class.  The  vials  will  be  kept  in  four  paper  trays  with  twelve 
compartments  each  made  to  accurately  accommodate  the  vials.  The  box  in  which  the 
trays  fit  will  have  a  front  side,  which  will  drop  down,  and  a  hinged  lid  provided  on  the 
outside  with  a  neatly  printed  label  describing  the  contents  of  the  box.  Such  a  box 
with  vials  should  not  cost  each  student  over  three  dollars,  if  bought  in  quantity  at 
present  prices  prevailing  (1920). l  With  these  sets  of  seeds,  it  will  be  possible  for  the 
class  to  make  a  comparative  study  of  the  most  important  agricultural  seeds.  With  the 
set  of  48  seeds,  now  used  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  the  students,  as  a  part  of 
the  practical  work  required  of  them  in  thfeir  final  examination  in  botany,  are  required 
to  identify  on  request  any  five  or  ten  seeds  of  the  set  of  forty-eight.  During  the  in- 
structional period,  drawings  of  each  of  the  forty-eight  seeds  should  be  made  with  the 
aid  of  hand  lenses. 

4.  The  most  important  grass  fruits  should  be  studied  in  sections  after  the  external 
study  has  been  completed  by  the  application  of  iodine  solution.  .  This  will  enable 
the  student  to  differentiate  the  embryo  and  the  reserve  food  in  a  more  perfect  way . 
Microscopic  sections  can  be  made,  but  time  will  hardly  be  found  for  a  detailed  study  of 
them. 

1  The  author  has  adopted  the  expedient  of  dividing  the  cost  between  the  school  and 
the  students.  The  school  pays  one-half  and  the  students  (with  their  consent)  the  other 
half  deducted  to  save  embarassment  from  the  students'  deposited  laboratory  fees.  The 
boxes  were  made  for  the  author  by  the  Jesse  Jones  Paper  Box  Co.,  615  Commerce 
Street,  Philadelphia.  The  vials  (No.  21)  with  screw  tops  (aluminium)  were  furnished 
by  Whitall  Tatum  Co.,  Glass  Manufacturers,  410  Race  Street,  Philadelphia  and  the 
gummed  labels  by  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  1007  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 
The  box  labels  were  printed  by  a  local  printer. 


CHAPTER  13 
THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS 

The  grasses,  which  are  grown  for  their  grains,  are  known  as  cereals. 
These  grasses  gathered  at  first  by  uncivilized  men  for  their  grain  fruits 
slowly  came  into  cultivation,  as  men  left  the  hunting  and  pastoral  stages 
and  became  agriculturists.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  China,  Babylonia, 
Egypt,  North  and  South  America  at  an  early  date  cultivated  the 
cereals.  The  most  important  cereals  hi  the  United  States  in  the  order 
of  their  production  are  Maize  (Indian  corn),  Oats,  Wheat,  Barley,  Rye, 
Rice,  Buckwheat.  The  average  production  of  them  in  the  United  States 
for  the  period  1911-13  was  in  bushels  as  follows: 

Maize  (Corn)  2,701,074,000  bushels. 

Oats  i, 1 54, 134,300  bushels. 

Wheat  704,995,000  bushels. 

Barley  187,417,700  bushels. 

Rye  56,721,000  bushels. 

Rice  11,808,700  bushels. 

The  above  cereals  will  be  treated  of  in  the  order  of  their  production  in  the 

United  States. 

Maize,  Indian  Corn,  Corn  (Zea  mays}. 

Origin. — Maize  is  undoubtedly  a  native  of  America  and  the  evidence 
points  to  Mexico  as  the  original  home  of  the  wild  species.  It  was  culti- 
vated from  ancient  tunes  among  the  agricultural  tribes  of  North  and  South 
America.  The  wild  form  is  not  known  definitely,  but  teosinte.  Euchl- 
laena  mexicana,  is  the  nearest  known  wild  relative  of  maize  and  the  two 
plants  readily  hybridize.  Montgomery,  Collins,  Weatherwax,  and  the 
writer  have  proposed  various  theories,  as  to  the  origin  of  maize  in  its 
cultivated  forms,  but  the  theoretical  discussion  of  this  interesting  matter 
will  not  be  solved  finally  until  either  a  wild  progenitor  of  maize  is  dis- 
covered by  some  fortunate  botanist,  or  the  cultivated  maize  (cultigen) 
is  produced  synthetically  from  maize  and  teosinte  combined,  as  some 
botanists  think  that  the  cultivated  plant  is  of  hybrid  origin,  or  from  teo- 
sinte alone. 


156 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Description. — Maize  is  a  summer  annual  and  is  dependent  upon  man 
for  its  reproduction,  not  sowing  itself  from  seed,  as  a  wild  plant  (Fig.  65). 
Its  root  system  is  fibrous,  but  in  addition  there  are  aerially  developed  prop 
roots  which  soon  become  fixed  in  the  soil.  The  stem  of  corn  is  solid  with 
the  closed,  collateral  sap-bundles  scattered  in  a  cross-sectional  view.  Fre- 
quently corn  produces  suckers  which  correspond  with  the  stools  of  wheat. 
Suckers  of  corn  are  undesirable,  as  they  are  heavy  soil  feeders  and  reduce 
the  yield  through  nonproduction  of  ears.  The  leaves  are  two  ranked 
with  large,  broad  blades  at  the  base  of  which  is  a  conspicuous  membran- 


FIG.  65. — Field  of  maize  at  Sea  Girt,  N.  J.,  August  23,  1919. 

ous  ligule,  or  rain-guard.  Corn  is  monoecious.  The  pistillate  flowers 
are  borne  in  a  spike,  or  ear,  surrounded  by  the  bases  of  transformed  leaves, 
or  husks.  The  male  flowers  are  produced  in  a  terminal  tassel.  The 
pistillate  spikelets  are  arranged  in  rows  along  a  fleshy  axis,  or  cob.  Each 
normal  pistillate  spikelet  has  two  flowers,  the  lower  (outer)  one  of  which  is 
abortive,  but  this  floret  is  represented  by  the  persistent  lemma  and  palea 
(Fig.  66).  The  spikelet  is  subtended  by  two  glumes  that  are  shorter 
than  the  ovary,  very  broad  and  fleshy  at  the  base,  thin  membranous  above 
and  fringed  on  the  edges.  The  lemma  and  palea  of  the  fertile  flower  are 
short,  broad  and  membranous.  The  single  ovary  bears  a  long  style,  or 


THE    MOST   IMPORTANT   CEREALS 


157 


thread  of  silk.     The  tassel,  or  panicle  of  staminate  spikelets  is  terminal 
in  maize.     Each  normal  staminate  spikelet  is  two-flowered,  each  flower 


FIG.  66. — Pistillate  spikelet  of  corn,  much  enlarged.     (Robbins  after  Nees., 

having  three  perfect  stamens  subtended  by  lemmas  and  palets.     Glumes 
subtend  each  staminate  spikelet  (Fig.  67). 


FIG.  67. — Details  of  maize  (Zea  mays  canina)  i.  Male  inflorescence;  2.  Two  male 
spikelets;  3.  Dissection  of  spikelet  with  two  male  flowers  (below  a  pollen  grain);  4.  Plan 
of  male  spikelet;  5.  Vertical  section  of  maize  kernel;  6.  Germination  of  maize  caryopsis. 
(After  Harshberger,  John  W.:  Maize:  A  Botanical  and  Economic  Study .  Contributions 
from  the  Botanical  Laboratory,  University  of  Pennsylvania  I,  No.  2,  Part  of  Plate  II,  1893.) 

Grain. — The  mature  grain  of  corn  is  flattened  with  an  external 
shallow  groove,  which  indicates  the  position  of  the  embryo,  and  at  the 
blunt  end  a  small  scar  where  the  style  was  attached.  Cutting  the  kernel 


158 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


open,  we  find  the  embryo  at  one  side  with  the  rest  of  the  interior  rilled 
with  starchy,  or  horny  reserve  food.  Increase  the  starchy  reserve  food  and 
you  increase  the  carbohydrate  content  of  the  grain.  Increase  the  horny 


FIG.  68. — Structure  and  germination  of  maize  kernel,-  A,  longitudinal  section  of 
maize  grain  showing  position  of  embryo  and  reserve  food;  B,  top  or  flat  side  of  kernel; 
C,  longitudinal  section  in  early  stages  of  germination;  D,  early  stage  of  germination, 
same  view  as  in  B;  E,  later  stage  of  germination  when  maize  has' become  independent, 
a,  outer  coat  of  fruit;  b,  scutellum;  c,  root  'sheath  or  coleorrhiza;  d,  radicle;  e,  cotyledon; 
/,  plumule;  g,  horny  reserve  food;  h,  starchy  reserve  food;  m,  secondary  roots. 

reserve  food  and  the  protein  contents  are  increased.  A  large  embryo, 
or  germ,  indicates  a  kernel  rich  in  oil  (Fig.  67) .  In  the  germination  of  the 
corn  grain,  the  optimum  temperature  is  9i°F.  a  maximum  of  ii4.8°F.  and 
a  mininum  of  41  °F.  The  primary  root  first  projects  then  bursts  through 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  159 

the  coleorhiza  and  later  the  secondary  roots  appear  about  the  time  that 
the  plumule  grows  upward  (Fig.  68).     Collins  describes  some  pueblo  corn 


•which  is  planted  very  deep  in  the  soil  at  least  a  foot,  or  eighteen  inches. 
Corn  with  such  a  habit  can  reach  the  water  in  the  deeper  soil  levels  and  is 
adapted  to  an  arid  climate. 


l6o  PASTORAL  AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Soils. — The  best  corn  soils  are  well  drained,  deep,  warm,  black  loams, 
with  a  high  per  cent,  of  organic  matter  and  available  nitrogen.  Varieties 
are  known  which  mature  in  80  days,  where  the  summer  temperature  is 
over  65°.  Even  these  requirements  nowhere  permit  it  to  mature  beyond 
5o°N.  though  it  is  grown  for  fodder  in  southern  England  and  in  Quebec. 
At  least  20  inches  of  rainfall  seem  necessary  for  the  best  growth  of  the 
corn  plant. 

Maize  is  the  principal  food  supply  of  the  American  people.  The  orig- 
inal distribution  of  the  plant  is  shown  in  the  map  (Fig.  69).  Outside  of 
the  south  very  little  corn  is  consumed  as  a  human  food  for  most  of  the  corn 
is  fed  to  cattle  or  hogs  and  consumed  as  meat.  The  maize  grown  in  the 
South  is  practically  all  of  it  consumed  at  home,  being  turned  into  hog  flesh, 
hoecake  and  hominy.  While  corn  meal  hominy  and  similar  products 
are  the  principal  corn  foods,  there  are  a  number  of  others  such  as  the  un- 
ripe ears,  especially  of  sweet  varieties  and  pop  corn  which  are  used  as 
favorite  American  foods.  Starch,  glucose,  gluten,  oil  and  corn  flakes  are 
also  made  from  corn. 

Cultivation. — Maize  is  of  the  utmost  importance  from  an  agricultural 
viewpoint  and  it  has  been,  studied  as  no  other  cereal  in  America  with  re- 
gard to  methods  of  cultivation,  improvement  of  .varieties,  composition, 
position  in  the  rotation  and  as  a  food  for  man  and  the  domestic  animals. 
The  important  food  materials  found  in  corn  and  its  products  are:  (i) 
Protein,  or  nitrogenous,  flesh-forming  material;  (2)  Fat;  (3)  Carbohydrates, 
or  heat-producing  elements,  such  as,  starches,  sugars,  cellulose,  or  crude 
fiber;  (4)  Mineral  matter  and  ash.  The  food  value  of  the  grain  of  maize 
lies  in  its  high  net  available  energy  due  to  the  presence  of  carbohydrates 
and  fats.  The  plant  whether  green,  ensiled,  or  dry  is  a  good  food  for  horses 
and  ruminants,  the  dry  matter  being  more  digestible  than  that  of  clover 
hay,  or  timothy  hay.  When  properly  prepared  the  food  value  of  the  dry 
matter  is  rather  less,  and  when  the  grain  is  added,  rather  more  than  that 
of  timothy  hay.  The  digestible  nutrients  in  the  grain  and  clover  are  about 
as  two  to  one.  The  nutrient  ratio  of  maize  is  1 17.5  and  its  nutritive  value 
is  87.  This  ratio  indicates  that  maize  is  poor  in  protein  substances  at  the 
best.  This  rather  unfits  it  for  a  standard  article  of  food,  unless  combined 
with  other  substances  richer  in  protein. 

Sowing. — The  North  American  Indians  believed  that  the  time  to  plant 
corn  had  arrived  when  the  young  leaves  of  the  white  oak  in  the  spring 
had  reached  the  size  of  squirrel  ears.  This  period  is  reached  in  Pennsyl- 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  l6l 

vania  about  the  first  week  of  May,  and  in  the  Gulf  states  about  the 
middle  of  February  to  the  beginning  of  March.  The  Indian  method  of 
planting  maize  was  to  put  four  grains  in  a  hill  four  feet  each  way  and  they 
taught  this  method  to  the  white  settlers.  The  usual  method  in  the  North 
Atlantic  states  is  to  plant  in  drills;  in  the  North  Central  states  the  practice 
is  divided,  but  the  larger  part  is  planted  in  hills,  while  in  the  South,  it 
is  usually  planted  in  hills  in  the  lowlands  while  in  hill  country  maize  is 
drilled,  so  that  all  cultivation  may  be  at  right  angles  to  the  slope  of  the  hill 
which  method  prevents  washing.  The  cultivation  of  maize  during  its 
early  development  prevents  the  growth  of  weeds  and(  stirs  the  soil.  The 
destruction  of  weeds  is  a  most  important  matter  as  they  compete  seriously 


FIG.  70. — Three-horse  corn-stalk  cutter  which  cuts  two  rows.     (After  Hartley,  C.  P.: 
Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn.     Farmers'  Bulletin  313,  1907,  p.  27.) 

with  the  corn  plants.  Deep  cultivation  should  be  practiced  early  in  the 
season  in  order  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture.  Shallow  cultivation  should 
be  pursued  late  in  the  season,  as  it  saves  the  feeding  corn  roots.  The 
frequency  of  cultivation  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  surface  condition  of 
the  soil  and  the  presence  of  weeds.  Improved  machinery  is  used  for  the 
cutting  of  the  corn  crop  (Fig.  70). 

Rotation. — Most  farmers  in  Indiana  maintain  a  general  rotation  of 
corn  one  year,  wheat  or  oats  one  year,  and  hay  or  pasture  one  or  two  years. 
Some  timothy  is  grown,  but  most  of  the  hay  is  clover.  In  Mercer  County, 
New  Jersey,  south  of  Trenton,  the  rotation  is  corn  one  year,  potatoes  one 
year,  rye  or  wheat  one  year  and  hay  one  or  two  years.  About  35  per 
cent,  of  the  farmers  grow  crimson  clover  and  rye,  or  vetch,  as  cover  crops 


1 62  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

after  corn.  In  portions  of  Ohio  there  is  a  three-year  rotation  of  corn, 
wheat  and  clover.  The  following  five  year  rotation  has  been  found  suc- 
cessful: Clover,  timothy,  corn,  oats,  wheat.  In  .the  south,  there  are 
3  Cs,  viz.,  corn,  cowpeas,  cotton. 

The  larger  part  of  the  crop  of  corn  is  still  husked  by  hand  from  the 
standing  plant,  which  is  then  cut  and  put  into  shocks,  or  into  the  silo. 
In  the  silo  by  process  of  fermentation,  it  is  converted  into  silage.  After 
being  husked,  the  ears  of  maize  are  placed  in  cribs  which  are  open-slatted 
storehouses  permitting  the  circulation  of  the  air.  Some  of  the  finer  ears 
are  laid  aside  as  seed  corn. 

Oats  (Avena  sativa,  A.  orientalis  and  A.  nuda}. — There  are  three  species 
of  oats  in  common  cultivation  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  71,  A  and  B}. 
They  are  the  panicle  oats  (Avena  sativa),  banner  oats  (A  orientalis}  and 
naked  oats  (A  nuda).  Several  botanists  believe  that  these  three  cultigens 
have  originated  from  the  wild  oats  (Avena  fatua} .  There  are  other  cul- 
tivated oats  but  they  are  of  minor  importance. 

Description. — The  roots  of  oats  extend  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet. 
The  stems  of  the  plant  are  larger  in  diameter  and  softer  than  wheat  and 
bear  leaves  abundantly.  The  leaves  have  a  closed  leaf  sheath  and  the 
ligule  is  short  and  toothed.  The  spikelets  of  the  oats  are  arranged  in 
open  panicles  with  a  one-sided  panicle  in  banner  oats.  The  spreading  oats , 
Avena  sativa,  has  a  panicle  with  its  branches  spreading  in  all  directions. 
An  oat  spikelet  has  two  to  five  flowers  with  two  unequal  glumes  at  the 
base  of  the  spikelet.  The  lemma  is  rounded  on  the  back  and  with  a  dor- 
sal awn.  The  palea  is  two-toothed  and  shorter  than  the  lemma  fitting 
closely  about  the  grain.  Each  floret  has  three  stamens.  The  blooming 
of  the  flowers  in  an  entire  spikelet  is  completed  in  about  a  week  with  the 
lower  floret  developing  first  and  the  others  in  ascending  order.  The 
flowering  period  is  from  2  to  4  p.m.  Self-pollination  is  the  rule,  although 
cross  pollination  is  not  impossible.  The  elongated  hairy  oat  kernel  is 
firmly  surrounded  by  the  lemma  and  the  palet  which  together  form  the 
hull.  The  starchy  endosperm  of  oats,  unlike  that  of  wheat,  has  no  gluten 
and  hence  it  cannot  be  made  into  a  light  head. 

Cool  summers  favor  the  ripening  of  the  grain  of  oats,  and  hence,  the 
plant  is  better  adapted  to  high  altitudes  and  latitudes.  The  plant  re- 
quires more  water  than  the  other  common  cereals,  and  hence,  the  crop  is 
generally  grown  in  the  spring.  The  plant  is  more  independent  of  the 
character  of  the  soil  than  any  other  cereal. 


THE    MOST    IMPORTANT    CEREALS 


PIG.  71. — Heads  of  oats  grown  at  the  Moro  substation:  A.  Sweedish  select,  a  banner 
oats,  Avena  orienlalis  and  B,  Kherson,  a  panicle  oats,  Avena  saliva.  (After  Stephens, 
David  E.:  Experiments  with  Spring  Cereals  at  the  Eastern  Oregon  Dry  Farming  Substation 
Moro,  Oregon.  Bull.  498,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1917,  p.  28.) 


164  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Large  quantities  of  oats  are  used  every  year  in  the  form  of  oatmeal 
and  rolled  oats.  The  grain  is  extensively  used  as  a  feed  for  horses,  and 
occasionally,  it  is  fed  to  poultry.  The  oat  plant  may  be  grown  for  pasture, 
for  hay,  or  as  a  nurse  crop.  Oat  straw  is  a  valuable  food  for  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  United  States  leads  all  other  countries  in  the  production  of 
oats  with  Russia  a  close  second. 

Quality. — The  quality  of  oats  depends  principally  upon  the  proportion 
of  hull  to  kernels.  American  varieties,  as  a  rule,  have  on  an  average  about 
thirty  per  cent,  of  hull  and  seventy  per  cent,  of  kernel,  and  as  these  per- 
centages vary  the  composition  of  the  grain  varies  also.  Oats  differ 
from  maize  in  having  a  larger  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber  at  the  expense  of  the 
starch.  The  kernel  is  richer  in  fat  and  protein  than  any  of  the  other  cereals. 
Oat  straw  has  a  higher  percentage  of  protein  and  a  lower  percentage  of 
crude  fiber  than  rye,  or  wheat  straw. 

Rotations. — Oats  generally  follow  maize  in  rotations.  The  following 
is  recommended  by  Hunt.  For  winter  wheat  sections,  maize,  one  year; 
oats,  one  year;  winter  wheat,  one  year;  timothy  and  common  red  clover, 
one  or  two  years.  For  sections  specially  adapted  to  maize  and  not  to 
wheat,  maize,  two  years;  oats,  one  year;  timothy  and  clover,  one  to  three 
years,  depending  upon  the  live  stock  kept.  For  southern  states:  maize 
and  cowpeas,  one  year;  oats  followed  by  cowpeas  harvested  for  hay,  one 
year;  cotton,  one  or  two  years.  In  the  first  year  of  this  rotation,  the 
cowpeas  grown  between  the  rows  of  maize  may  be  harvested  for  grain. 

Cultivation  and  Yield. — It  is  not  as  necessary  to  prepare  a  deep  seed 
bed  for  oats  as  for  wheat,  maize,  etc.  The  oats  are  sown  broadcast  and 
covered  with  a  disk  harrow.  Oats  are  sown  in  the  northern  states,  as  soon 
as  possible  in  the  spring  and  in  the  southern  states,  the  winter  varieties 
are  sowed  between  October  ist  and  November  isth,  while  the  spring 
sowing  takes  place  there  from  January  to  March.  The  average  yield  per 
annum  per  acre  of  oats  during  the  decade  1893-1902  was  27.8  bushels. 
Sixty  to  seventy-five  bushels  is  considered  a  good  yield,  while  in  Canada 
loo  bushels  have  been  produced  to  the  acre.  The  center  of  oat  cultiva- 
tion in  the  United  States  is  in  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin.  This  shows  a 
northward  movement  over  the  year  1850,  when  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Ohio  were  the  principal  oat-producing  states. 

Wheat  (Triticum,  several  species). — As  with  all  cultivated  plants, 
which  have  been  associated  with  the  agricultural  operations  of  man  from 
very  early  days,  there  has  been  a  discussion  as  to  the  origin  of  wheat.  Re- 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  165 

cently  Aaron  Aaronsohn  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  Pales- 
tine has  discovered  on  Mount  Hermon  a  wild  wheat  which  has  been 
named  Triticum  hermonis  by  O.  F.  Cook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  who  has  studied  in  detail" this  interesting  plant.  What 
the  relationship  of  this  wild  wheat  is  to  the  diverse  types  of  cultivated 
wheats,  it  is  too  early  to  state,  but  this  can  be  said,  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  all  the  cultivated  types  of  wheat  arose  from  a  single  wild  species 
or  from  several  wild  species,  more  probably  the  latter  is  the  true  explana- 
tion. The  cultivated  wheats  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  as  follows: 

1.  Naked  wheats  in  which  the  grain  comes  free  from  the  lemma  and 
palet,  and  the  rachis  is  tenacious.     This  group  includes  the  durum  wheat 
(T.  durum),  the  Poulard  wheat  (7".  turgidum),  the  club  wheat  (T.  com- 
pactum),  the  common  bread  wheat  (T.  (Bstivum)  and  the  Polish  wheat 
(T.  polonicum), 

2.  Spelt  wheats,  in  which  the  grain  remains  attached  to  the  lemma  and 
palet  and  the  rachis  is  fragile.     This  group  includes  the  einkorn  (T. 
monococcum),  the  emmer  (T.  dicoccum)  and  the  spelt  (T.  spelta).     The 
wheats  of  this  group  are  nearest  to  the  primitive  condition,  for  it  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  the  progenitor,  or  progenitors,  of  the  cultivated  forms 
had  a  fragile  rachis,  and  this  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  the  wheats  culti- 
vated in  ancient  times  had  fragile  rachises,  such  as  emmer,  and  by  the 
fact  that  the  wild  species  from  Syria  also  agrees  in  this  peculiarity.     The 
Triticum  hcrmonis  is  the  T.  dicoccum  dicoccoides,  a  wild  emmer,  and  this 
wild  emmer  is  considered  by  Chodat  to  be  the  primitive  form  and  he 
concludes  that  wheat  is  indigenous  to  Syria. 

Description. — Wheat  is  an  annual  plant  with  fibrous  roots  and  usually 
six-jointed  stems,  the  upper  or  last  internode  being  the  spike-bearing  one. 
The  leaf  of  wheat  is  of  the  usual  grass  type  with  a  split  sheath  and  thin 
transparent  ligule.  The  spikelets  are  arranged  in  a  spike  with  an  average 
of  15-20  fertile  spikelets  in  a  head  (Fig.  72).  The  number  of  flowers  in  a 
spikelet  varies  from  two  to  five.  Each  spikelet  has  two  broad  glumes  at 
the  base.  The  lemmas  are  awned,  or  beardless,  that  is  awnless.  There 
are  three  stamens  and  an  ovary  with  two  feathery  styles.  Two  lodicules 
are  present.  In  northern  cold,  or  wet  climates,  close  pollination  is  the 
rule  with  wheat,  but  in  durum  wheats  cross  pollination  is  habitual,  and 
this  seems  to  be  the  case  with  primitive  wheats  and  those  grown  in  hot, 
dry  localities.  The  mature  grain  has  a  tuft  of  hairs,  the  brush,  at  the 
small  (stigmatic)  end  of  the  kernel,  and  at  the  opposite  end  is  found  the 


1 66 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


embryo.  A  groove,  or  furrow,  is  found  along  the  side  of  the  grain  facing 
the  palet.  In  cross  section,  the  following  cell  layers  are  distinguishable 
(i)  ovary  wall,  or  pericarp,  several  cells  thick;  (2)  testa,  two  layers  of 
cells;  (3)  tegmen;  (4)  aleurone  layer  often  called  the  gluten  layer;  (5) 
starchy  endosperm;  (6)  embryo.  The  bran  layer  includes  the  three  outer 
layers  viz.,  pericarp,  testa  and  tegmen.  The  latter  is  represented  by  a 


FIG.  72. — Heads  of  varieties  of  spring  wheat  grown  at  the  Moro  substation:  A, 
Little  Club;  B,  Pacific  Bluestem;  C,  Karun.  (After  Stephens,  David  E.:  Experiments 
with  Spring  Cereals  at  the  Eastern  Oregon  Dry-Farming  Substation,  Moro,  Oregon.  Bull. 
498,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1917,  p.  19.) 

single  layer  of  cells  outside  of  the  aleurone  layer.  In  the  undeveloped 
embryo,  this  tissue  was  large  and  prominent.  The  protein  in  the  wheat 
varies  from  8.1  per  cent,  to  17.2  per  cent,  with  an  average  of  11.9  per  cent, 
and  there  appear  to  be  five  kinds  of  wheat  proteins:  globulin,  albumin, 
proteose,  gliadin  and  glutenin,  according  to  the  researches  of  Osborne 
and  Vorrhees.  There  are  two  kinds  of  wheat,  hard  and  soft.  The  hard 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  167 

wheats  have  a  horny  character  and  are  rich  in  protein.  Such  are  the  hard 
spring  wheat  (Fife  and  Bluestem),  the  hard  winter  wheat  (Turkey  and 
Krastov)  and  the  durum  wheat  (Kubanka).  Out  of  the  durum  wheats 
are  manufactured  macaroni,  spaghetti  and  vermicelli. 

Adaptation. — Wheat  is  best  adapted  to  growth  in  moderately  dry 
temperate  climates.  It  is  not  grown  in  regions  with  a  growing  season'  less 
than  ninety  days,  nor  in  regions  having  less  than  nine  inches  of  annual 
rainfall.  Wheat  is  grown  on  a  wider  range  of  soils,  but  the  famous  wheat 
soils  of  the  world  are  of  high  fertility  and  of  fine  texture,  such  as  silts, 
silt  loams  and  clay  loams,  usually  rich  in  humus.  Black  soils  rich  in 
nitrogen  generally  produce  wheat  with  a  higher  gluten  content,  as  those 
of  the  cherzonem  of  Russia,  and  the  northwestern  prairie  soils  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  There  are  many  varieties  of  wheat,  some  being 
winter  annuals,  sown  in  the  fall  and  harvested  in  early  summer,  while 
others  are  sown  in  the  spring  and  harvested  usually  ten  to  twenty  days 
later  than  the  winter  varieties.  The  United  States  produces  slightly  less 
than  one-fifth  of  the  world's  wheat  and  about  one-half  6f  the  whole  crop  of 
the  United  States  is  produced  in  the  North  Central  states  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River. 

Rotation. — Rotations  are  best,  although  not  always  profitable,  because 
continuous  cropping  with  wheat  -reduces  soil  fertility.  In  winter  wheat 
sections,  wheat  may  follow  corn,  oats,  potatoes  or  tobacco.  Wheat 
requires  a  firm,  fine  and  moist,  seed-bed  whether  it  be  sown  in  the  fall,  or 
the  spring.  When  wheat  follows  corn,  potatoes,  or  tobacco,  the  ground 
should  be  plowed  thoroughly  for  these  crops  in  the  spring  of  the  year  and 
the  crops  grown  should  receive  thorough  and  regular  cultivation,  as 
long  as  possible.  After  the  crop  is  harvested,  double  disking  should  put 
the  ground  in  an  ideal  condition  for  the  sowing  of  wheat.  When  winter 
wheat  follows  oats,  the  stubble  should  be  plowed,  as  early,  as  possible. 
The  results  of  Utah,  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota  in  plowing  in  fall  and 
spring  for  spring  wheat  are  only  slightly  in  favor  of  the  fall  plowing,  so 
far,  as  yield  is  concerned,  but  early  fall  plowing  is  generally  advocated  by 
these  stations  in  the  interest  of  weed  and  insect  destruction,  and  more 
economical  farm  management.  Spring  plowing  has  given  better  results  in 
Manitoba  than  fall  plowing,  while  summer  fallowing  has  given  better 
results  than  either.  The  five  course  rotation  of  maize,  oats,  and  wheat, 
each  one  year,  and  timothy  and  clover  two  years,  is  considered  standard  in 
many  sections.  The  winter  killing  of  winter  wheat  is  often  a  source  of 
great  loss  in  the  United  States. 


1 68  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Cultivation  and  Yield. — The  rate  of  seeding  varies  greatly  in  different 
wheat  districts  of  the  United 'States.  East  of  the  Mississippi  River,  two 
bushels  of  well-cleaned  seed  will  give  the  best  results.  In  the  dry  farming 
regions  of  the  West,  three  pecks  in  the  driest  sections  and  six  to  eight 
pecks  in  the  more  humid  sections  are  used.  Wheat  is  usually  harvested, 
when  fully  ripe.  The  straw  should  be  yellow  in  color  and  the  grain,  in 
hard  dough,  while  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  it  is  allowed  to  stand  a  week,  or 
two,  after  it  is  ripe  and  is  then  gathered  with  a  combined  harvester  and 
thresher.  Wheat  should  be  shocked  the  same  day  it  is  cut.  This  pre- 
vents rapid  drying  and  aids  the  more  complete  storage  of  starch  in  the 
grain  from  the  plastic  materials  found  in  stem  and  leaves.  The  experi- 
ence of  last  summer  (1919)  indicates  that  wheat  should  be  hauled  into 
the  barn,  as  soon  as  possible,  as  a  wet  spell  may  completely  destroy  the 
crop  by  the  sprouting  of  the  wheat  grains,  while  in  shock.  Threshing 
may  then  be  done  at  a  convenient  time,  the  sooner  the  better,  and  the 
threshed  grain  should  be  stored  in  tight,  clean  granaries.  The  average 
yield  of  wheat  hi  France  is  20  bushels  per  acre.  The  yield  of  wheat  in 
the  United  States  in  1909,  nineteen  bushels  per  acre,  was  greatest  in  the 
regions  receiving  30  to  35  inches  of  precipitation  during  that  crop  year. 
This  yield  of  nineteen  bushels  per  acre  seems  too  low  an  average  for  a 
progressive  agricultural  country  like  the  United  States.  The  yield  might 
be  increased  by  giving  up  slip  shod  methods  of  cultivation  and  by  growing 
improved  varieties. 

Barley  (Hordeum  vulgare). — Botanists  recognize  at  least  two  species 
of  barley  with  a  number  of  varieties  of  each  species.  The  two  species  are 
known  to  science  as  the  six-rowed  barley  (Hordeum  vulgar  e) ,  and  the  two- 
rowed  barley  (Hordeum  distichon).  Koernicke  believes  that  the  proto- 
type of  the  cultivated  barleys  is  Hordeum  spontaneum,  a  type  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  nutans  form  of  two-rowed  barley.  Rimpau  considers  the 
six-rowed  bearded  barley  as  the  progenitor  of  all  the  types. 

Winter  barleys  are  susceptible  to  winter  cold,  even  more  than  winter 
rye,  or  winter  wheat,  hence  in  the  northern  United  States  practically  all 
the  barley  is  sown  in  the  spring.  As  a  spring  grown  crop,  it  is  cultivated 
in  Alaska,  as  far  north,  as  65°N.  latitude  and  up  to  an  altitude  of  7,500 
feet  in  the  Rocky  mountains.  At  higher  elevations,  it  is  grown  for  hay 
in  a  variety  known  as  "bald  barley. " 

Description. — The  barley  plant  is  a  summer,  or  a  winter  annual. 
The  roots  resemble  those  of  the  oat,  and  from  the  root  system  arise 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  169 

stems  with  five  to  seven  joints  occasionally  an  eighth.  The  inflorescence 
is  a  spike  of  spikelets  with  a  strongly  compressed  rachis.  The  horizontal 
cushion,  where  the  spikelets  articulate,  distinguishes  barley  from  wheat 
and  rye.  There  are  three  spikelets  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis.  The 
lateral  spikelets  of  each  group  of  three  are  sometimes  imperfect  with  the 
short  branch,  or  rachilla,  prolonged  beyond  the  central  spikeletas  a  bristle, 
but  accommodated  within  the  groove  of  the  grain.  Each  spikelet  is  one- 
flowered.  The  glumes  are  narrow  and  awn-like  forming  an  involucre- 
like  enclosure  of  the  spikelets.  The  lemma  is  broad  and  bears  a  long 
barbed  awn.  The  palea  is  about,  as  long,  as  the  lemma  and  has  two  ridges 
The  styles  are  short  and  the  two  lodicules  are  prominent.  Self-pollina- 
tion is  the  rule  in  the  barleys,  but  occasional  cross  pollination  occurs  in 
the  four-rowed  and  two-rowed  nodding  barleys.  The  mature  kernel  may 
be  covered  in  the  hulled  barleys  by  the  palet  and  lemma.  These  scales 
come  loose  in  the  naked  barleys. 

Barley  is  used  principally  in  the  preparation  of  malt  in  the  brewing 
industries.  Smaller  quantities  are  ground  and  made  into  bread,  while 
pearl  barley  is  used  in  soups.  Barley  is  a  valuable  feed  for  dairy  cows, 
sheep,  hogs  and  poultry. 

Cultivation. — Barley  should  be  sown,  as  soon,  as  danger  from  severe 
frosts  are  over,  and  the  soil  is  sufficiently  warm  and  dry  to  make  a  good 
seed  bed.  This  date  varies  in  the  northern  states  from  April  i  to  May  15. 
In  the  humid  regions,  seeding  is  at  the  rate  of  8  pecks  to  the  acre  and  in 
drills  six  to  eight  inches  apart.  This  method  insures  an  even  distribution 
of  the  seed.  Barley,  in  seasons  of  drought  is  benefited  by  cultivation 
with  a  spike-toothed  harrow,  or  weeder.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain  states, 
considerable  barley  is  grown  under  irrigation. 

Barley  ripens  in  the  southern  states  from  May  i  to  June  i  and  in  the 
northern  states  during  July  and  August.  Care  must  be  exercised  to 
harvest  barley  at  the  right  time,  neither  too  early  nor  too  late.  A  good 
index  is  the  hardness  of  the  grain  which  should  just  be  dented  with  the 
finger  nail.  The  crop  is  usually  harvested  with  the  binder,  and  if  weather 
permits,  the  bundles  should  dry  before  being  placed  together  in  the  shocks, 
which  should  be  capped  to  protect  the  grain  from  heavy  rams. 

For  small  farms  threshing  from  the  stack  is  better  than  from  the  shock, 
as  a  better  quality  of  grain  is  obtained.  Ca*re  should  be  used  in  threshing 
as  many  grains  will  be  cracked,  if  the  concaves  of  the  machine  are  set  too 
close.  After  threshing,  the  grain  should  be  carefully  housed  hi  dry  bins. 


1 70  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

The  average  yield  of  barley  in  the  United  States  for  the  ten  year  period, 
1900  to  1909,  was  25.7  bushels  per  acre. 

Rotations. — Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  rotation  of  barley 
with  other  crops.  Where  barley  replaces  wheat  in  the  rotation,  the  se- 
quence of  crops  may  be  maize,  barley  and  oats,  each  one  year,  or  timothy 
and  clover,  one  or  more  years.  The  land  has  thus  had  surface  tillage 
the  previous  year  and  may  have  been  manured.  In  some  regions, 
barley  replaces  oats,  when  the  rotation  becomes  maize,  barley  and  wheat, 
each  one  year,  followed  with  clover,  or  clover  and  timothy,  one  or  two  years. 

Rye  (Secale  cereale). — The  wild  progenitor  of  the  cultivated  species  is 
looked  upon  by  botanists  as  S.  anatolicum,  one  of  the  subspecies  of  S. 
montanum,  which  extends  from  Spain  and  Morocco  to  central  Asia.  The 
wild  species  is  a  perennial,  but  the  cultivated  form  is  an  annual.  The  root 
system  is  a  whorl  of  four  primary  roots,  which  extend  into  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  four  to  five  feet.  The  stems  of  rye  with  five  to  six,  rarely  four- 
to  seven-jointed  are  tougher,  slenderer  and  larger  than  those  of  barley, 
oats  and  wheat.  The  rye  inflorescence  is  a  spike  of  spikelets.  Each 
spikelet  consists  of  three  flowers,  with  the  two  lateral  flowers  perfect  and 
maturing  grains,  while  the  middle  floret  is  abortive.  The  glumes  are 
narrow.  The  lemma  is  broad-keeled  and  bears  a  long  terminal  awn. 
The  palet  is  thin,  blunt  and  two-keeled.  The  lodicules  are  small  and 
membranous.  Three  stamens  are  present  in  each  perfect  flower  and  a 
single  pistil  with  two  feathery  styles.  Rye  is  commonly  cross-fertilized 
and  in  this  respect  is  like  maize,  but  unlike  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  The 
mature  grain  is  free  from  the  lemma  and  palet.  It  is  long,  narrow  and 
usually  darker  in  color  than  wheat. 

The  structure  of  the  rye  caryopsis  is  like  that  of  wheat,  with  somewhat 
similar  layers  of  cell.  Rye  protein  usually  forms  6  to  12  per  cent,  of  the 
grain.  Gluten  is  present  in  the  protein,  hence,  rye  can  be  made  into 
porous  bread. 

Rye  is  adapted  to  a  colder,  drier  climate  than  wheat.  It  does  well  on 
poor,  and  sandy  soils.  Rye  is  fed  to  stock  mixed  with  barley,  maize,  or 
oats.  1  he  straw  is  used  for  stable  bedding,  as  a  stuffing,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper,  hats  and  other  articles  of  straw. 

Cultivation. — Spring  rye  is  sometimes  grown  in  the  northern  states, 
but  it  should  give  way  to  winter  rye,  where  that  grain  crop  will  survive. 
About  96  per  cent,  of  the  world's  rye  is  produced  and  consumed  in  Europe 
where  in  such  states,  as  Germany,  Holland,  Russia,  Belgium,  Austria  and 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  171 

Hungary,  it  is  of  great  importance.  It  is  grown  farther  north  than  the 
other  cereals.  In  the  United  States,  rye  is  grown  mostly  in  regions  having 
a  cool  climate  and  sandy  soils.  About  two-thirds  of  the  rye  grain  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  is  used  as  a  cattle  food  and  the  other  third 
formerly  in  the  production  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact,  that  rye  will  grow  on  poor  soils,  the  crop 
responds  to  good  soils  and  the  application  of  fertilizers.  When  intended 
for  a  grain  crop,  it  should  be  sown  about  September  i  in  the  northern 
states  and  in  the  latter  half  of  November  in  the  southern  states.  If 
used  as  a  cover,  pasture,  or  green  manure  crop,  it  should  be  planted  two 
weeks  to  a  month  earlier  than  if  grown  for  the  grain.  It  should  in  all 
cases  become  well  established  before  winter  begins.  Rye  is  best  sown  in 
drills  6  to  8  inches  apart,  using  a  regular  grain  drill  and  covering  the  seed 
one-half  inch  to  two  inches  deep.  The  usual  rate  of  seeding  in  the  eastern 
states  is  about  6  pecks  to  the  acre.  Rye  ripens  about  the  middle  of  May 
in  extreme  northern  Florida,  and  in  the  northern  states  between  July  10 
and  July  25  being  a  few  days  earlier  than  wheat.  The  crop  is  cut  and 
bound  like  wheat  and  the  shocks  are  relatively  high  as  the  stems  frequently 
reach  a  height  of  six  feet.  It  is  difficult,  therefore,  to  harvest  it  with  a 
self-binder.  After  the  crop  is  well-cured  in  the  shock,  it  should  be  stacked, 
or  put  under  cover  until  threshing  time.  The  grain  is  threshed  out  the 
same  way  as  with  wheat  and  the  grains. 

Rotation. — Ordinarily  rye  occupies  the  place  assigned  to  wheat  in  a 
rotation.  The  Rhode  Island  station  has  practised  a  six-course  rotation, 
as  follows:  first  year,  winter  rye;  second  year,  timothy,  redtop  and  me- 
dium red  clover;  third  year,  grass;  fourth  year,  grass  and  fifth  year,  maize; 
sixth  year,  potatoes.  No  stable  manure  was  applied,  but  liberal  supplies 
of  fertilizers  were  used.  Rye  which  is  to  be  used  as  a  green  manure  may 
be  sown  in  the  standing  maize  in  September,  or  after  maize  is  shocked, 
may  be  disked  in  without  plowing.  It  is  plowed  into  the  soil  the  following 
spring.  A  rotation  for  Minnesota  and  suitable  for  other  states  in  the  same 
latitude  is  first  year,  rye  (land  fall  plowed  after  crop) ;  second  year,  barley 
(seeded  to  clover) ;  third  year,  clover  (second  crop  plowed  under) ;  fourth 
year,  corn;  fifth  year,  barley,  or  other  grain.  In  some  of  the  North 
Atlantic  states,  where  rye  straw  has  a  high  value,  the  following  rotation 
may  be  followed  successfully:  first  year,  corn,  with  a  heavy  application 
of  stable  manure;  second  year,  oats  with  acid  phosphate;  third  year,  rye 
with  acid  phosphate;  fourth  year,  grass,  seeded  the  year  before  with  the 


172  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

rye.  The  ten-year  (1907-1916)  average  yields  in  bushels  per  acre  of  rye 
for  several  of  the  southeastern  United  States  have  been  as  follows:  Ten- 
nessee, 11.3;  North  Carolina,  9.9;  Alabama,  11.2;  Georgia,  9.3  and  South 
Carolina,  10.1. 

Rice  (Oryza  saliva). — This  aquatic,  or  marsh  grass  is  annual  in  habit 
and  best  adapted  to  growth  under  aquatic,  marsh,  or  very  wet  soil  condi- 
tions. There  are  upland  varieties,  but  the  lowland  type  is  the  one  most 
generally  grown  in  this  country  and  abroad.  Its  roots  are  fibrous  with  the 
possible  production  of  adventitious  roots  by  the  first,  second  and  third 
nodes.  Tillers  are  formed  freely  with  the  production  of  four,  or  five, 
hollow  stems  growing  to  a  height  of  two  to  six  feet.  The  leaf  sheaths  are 
split  and  the  blades  are  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  long  and  %  to  i  inch 
wide.  The  ligule  is  long  and  easily  splits  into  two  parts.  The  auricle  is 
green,  or  white,  and  hairy. 

The  inflorescence  is  a  panicle  of  spikelets.  The  spikelet  is  compressed 
laterally  and  has  two  scale-like,  or  bristle-like  glumes  with  a  small,  minute, 
accessory  glume  beneath  each.  The  lemma  is  compressed,  membrane- 
ous and  five-nerved.  The  palet  is  similar  in  size  and  texture.  Awns  may 
be  absent,  or  present,  on  both  lemma  and  palet.  The  lodicules  are  small, 
thick  and  fleshy.  There  are  six  functional  stamens  in  each  rice  flower. 
The  ovary  is  somewhat  longer  than  broad,  smooth  and  bears  two  styles 
and  occasionally  a  rudimentary,  third  style.  Self  pollination  is  the  rule 
with  rice.  The  tip  flowers  of  the  spike  open  first.  The  rice  caryopsis  is 
inclosed  by  lemma  and  palet,  or  by  the  palet  alone.  Rice  with  the  hull 
is  known  as  paddy.  Commercially  "cleaned  rice"  is  the  hullless  grain. 
Polished  rice  has  recently  come  into  prominence,  because  it  has  been 
found  that  individuals  and  persons  feeding  on  an  almost  exclusive  rice 
diet,  as  in  India  and  the  Philippines,  suffer  from  a  disease  known  as  beri- 
beri. It  has  been  recently  discovered  that  beri-beri  is  a  disease  of  mal- 
nutrition due  to  the  absence  of  phosphates  which  reside  in  the  surface  of 
the  rice  kernel.  A  change  of  diet  from  polished  rice  to  unpolished  removes 
the  cause  of  the  disease. 

Distribution  and  Soils. — Rice  is  the  great  food  crop  of  the  Chinese, 
Hindoos,  Japanese  and  races  of  the  Philippine  islands  and  a  grain  of  high 
quality  has  been  produced  in  these  regions.  1 1  is  raised  in  northern  Italy  and 
in  the  southern  United  States  outside  of  the  great  rice-producing  countries. 
The  bulk  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States  is  raised  in  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
There  is  considerable  acreage  to  rice  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  173 

Rice  is  rarely  raised  north  of  that  region  in  which  the  average  summer 
temperature  (June,  July,  August)  is  lower  than  77°F.,  and  in  moist 
regions  where  lowland  rice  can  be  cultivated  in  delta,  or  alluvial  lands, 
that  can  be  inundated.  The  best  soil  for  rice  is  a  medium  loam,  containing 
about  50  per  cent,  of  clay.  This  allows  the  presence  of  sufficient  humus 
for  the  highest  fertility  without  decreasing  too  much  the  compact  nature 
of  the  soil.  The  rich,  drift  soils  of  the  Louisiana  and  Texas  prairies  have 
shown  a  marvelous  adaptation  to  rice.  These  soils  are.  underlain  with 
clay,  so  as  to  be  retentive  of  water. 

The  rice  lands  of  the  United  States  comprise  delta  lands,  inland 
marshes,  alluvial  lands  and  prairie  lands.  A  large  part  of  the  rice  grown 
in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  is  produced  on  tidal  deltas,  and  to  some 
extent  on  inland  marshes.  In  eastern  Louisiana,  rice  is  grown  on  low 
lands,  which  were  once  used  as  sugar  plantations,  also  on  the  well-drained 
alluvial  lands  farther  up  the  Mississippi  River.  In  1884  and  1885,  a 
few  farmers  from  the  northwestern  prairie  states  settled  on  the  great 
southern  prairie  which  extends  along  the  coast  from  the  parish  of  St. 
Mary  in  Louisiana  to  the  Texas  line.  Wherever  they  found  the  prairie 
land  sufficiently  level  with  a  creek  nearby,  which  could  be  used  to  flood  the 
land,  they  built  small  levees  12  to  24  inches  high  with  an  ulterior  ditch 
12  to  1 8  inches  deep  and  form  to  five  feet  wide.  Large  crops  of  rice  were 
raised  by  the  adaptation  of  such  agricultural  machinery,  as  the  gang  plow, 
disk  harrow,  drill  and  broadcast  seeder  to  the  new  conditions,  but  a  set 
back  came  owing  to  the  cheap  construction  of  the  levees  and  the  advent 
of  dry  summers  when  the  streams  went  dry.  There  are  large  areas  de- 
voted to  raising  rice  in  Arkansas  where  the  rice  fields  vary  from  10  to  40 
acres  plowed  with  tractors  and  gathered  by  harvesters.  The  yields  run 
as  high  as  104  bushels,  the  average  yield  hi  1919  being  60  bushels. 

Cultivation. — The  time  of  plowing  is  in  the  spring  just  before  planting 
time  and  deep  plowing  should  be  practised  as  it  places  more  food  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  the  growing  rice.  The  amount  of  rice  sown  with  a 
drill  per  acre  varies  in  different  sections  and  with  different  methods  of 
sowing,  from  i  to  3  bushels  per  acre  should  be  used.  After  seeding  just 
enough  water  is  let  on  the  field  to  saturate  the  ground.  Flooding  follows, 
when  the  rice  is  6  to  8  inches  tall,  so  as  to  prevent  scalding  of  the  plants. 
The  depth  of  water  that  should  be  maintained  from  the  first  flooding 
until  it  is  withdrawn  for  the  harvest  depends  upon  other  conditions.  If 
the  growing  crop  thoroughly  shades  the  land,  just  enough  water  to  keep 


1^4  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

the  soil  saturated  will  do.  To  be  on  the  safe  side,  the  water  should  stand 
3  to  6  inches  deep  and  to  prevent  stagnation,  there  should  be  a  constant 
inflow  and  outflow.  Large  fields  impede  complete  drainage  and  uniform 
ripening.  Hence,  small  fields  are  the  best.  At  harvest  time,  the  water 
is  drawn  off  and  as  the  soil  is  rarely  sufficiently  dry  at  this  time  heavy 
machinery  cannot  be  used.  The  sickle  is  the  implement  commonly  used 
in  harvesting  rice  which  is  then  bound,  when  it  is  dry,  and  shocked  on  the 
dry  ground.  Ten  to  twelve  days  will  completely  cure  the  grain.  The  pri- 
mitive methods  of  flailing  and  treading  out  have  given  place  to  the  use  of 
the  steam  thresher.  As  the  rice  comes  from  the  thresher  it  is  known  as 
" paddy,"  or  "rough  rice. "  It  is  passed  through  the  mill  to  remove  the 
hulls,  or  chaff,  which  are  restored  to  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer,  or  are  used  as  a 
mulch  for  garden  and  orchard.  Rice  straw  is  sweet  and  has  an  excellent 
flavor,  much  relished  by  stock,  who  eat  it  readily.  As  fashion  demands 
rice  with  a  fine  gloss,  it  is  usually  polished,  although  its  food  value  is 
diminished  and  an  exclusive  diet  of  polished  rice  induces  a  disease  known 
as  beri-beri. 

Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum). — The  buckwheat  is  a  member  of 
the  family  PolygonacecB  and,  therefore,  not  a  true  cereal,  but  for  con- 
venience, and  because  its  fruit  is  grain-like,  it  is  usually  considered  along 
with  the  grain-producing  plants.-  There  are  two  other  species  of  buck- 
wheat occasionally  cultivated  in  this  country  and  in  Asia. 

Description. — The  roots  of  the  buckwheat  consist  of  a  true  primary 
roots  with  several  branches.  The  stem  ascends  to  a  height  of  two  to 
three  feet,  and  bears  alternate,  triangular,  heart-shaped,  or  halberd- 
shaped  leaves  with  semicylindrical  sheaths  or  ocrea.  The  white  flowers 
are  borne  in  corymbose  racemes  and  are  dimorphic  with  long  styles 
and  short  styles  respectively  which  prevents  self-pollination.  The  sepals 
which  alone  are  present  bear  eight,  honey-bearing,  yellow  glands  inter- 
posed between  the  eight  stamens.  The  ovary  is  surmounted  by  three 
styles  and  the  ripe  achene  is  three-angled,  smooth  and  shining.  The 
grain  incloses  a  single  seed  with  a  curved,  dicotyledonous  embryo 
surrounded  by  a  starchy  endosperm. 

Buckwheat  is  adapted  to  temperate  climates  with  cool,  moderately 
moist  summers.  The  fruit  does  not  set  properly  in  dry,  hot  weather.  It 
does  well  on  poor  soils.  The  principal  use  of  buckwheat  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pancake  flour.  The  whole  fruit  is  sometimes  fed  to  cattle, 
hogs  and  poultry.  The  middlings  (hulls  mixed  with  bran)  are  utilized 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  175 

in  the  feeding  of  stock.  The  honey  made  from  the  nectar  of  buckwheat 
by  honey-bees  has  a  high  reputation  for  flavor.  The  plant  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  green  manure,  being  rich  in  ash  and  nitrogen. 

Cultivation. — The  seed  bed  is  prepared  immediately  preceeding  the 
sowing  of  buckwheat  by  plowing  and  harrowing  the  soil.  The  farmers  of 
northern  Pennsylvania  have  a  saying  that  buckwheat  should  be  planted 
when  the  chestnut  tree  comes  into  flower,  but  the  date  of  seeding  varies 
from  May  ist  to  August  ist,  the  preferred  tune  being  the  middle  of  June 
to  the  middle  of  July.  The  plant  comes  into  flower  early  and  continues 
to  bloom  until  frost  comes.  Buckwheat  is  usually  harvested  when  the 
first  achenes  are  mature,  which  is  usually  in  September.  Much  is  still 
harvested  with  a  cradle.  The  plants  are  not  bound,  but  are  set  up  in 
shocks  like  maize  fodder  and  threshed,  as  soon,  as  dry.  The  yield  per 
acre  varies  from  five  to  fifty  bushels.  An  average  of  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  bushels  is  considered  a  satisfactory  yield. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  items  are  arranged  according  to  the  cereal  plants  discussed  above 
without  any  attempt  at  making  the  list  complete. 

Maize 

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U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1910,  329-340;  Crop  Plants  for  Paper  Making, 
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CmLCOTT,  E.  C.,  COLE,  J.  S.  and  BURR,  W.  W.:  Corn  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.  Bull- 
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1 76  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

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Hybrids.  Journal  Agricultural  Research,  xvii,  127-135,  June,  1919;  A  Fossil 
Ear  of  Maize.  Journal  of  Heredity,  x,  170-172. 

DUVEL,  J.  W.  T.:  Grades  for  Commercial  Corn.  Bulletin  168,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1915. 

FINCH,  V.  C.  and  BAKER,  O.  E.:  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture.  U.  S.  De- 
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FREEMAN,  W.  G.  and  CHANDLER,  S.  E.:  The  World's  Commercial  Products.  Boston, 
Ginn  and  Company,  1911. 

GARDNER,  FRANK  D.:  Successful  Farming.  Philadelphia,  John  C.  Winston  Company, 
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HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W.:  Maize:  A  Botanical  and  Economic  Study.  Contributions 
from  the  Botanical  Laboratory,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  I,  75-202,  1893; 
El  Maiz  Estudio  Botanico  y  Economico,  Secretaria  de  Fomento,  Mexico,  1894 
(translation  of  the  above) ;  Fertile  Crosses  between  Teosinte  and  Maize.  Garden 
and  Forest,  ix,  522,  1896;  Notes  on  the  Hybrid  of  Maize  and  Teosinte.  Garden 
and  Forest,  x,  48,  1897;  A  Study  of  the  Fertile  Hybrids  produced  by  Crossing 
Teosinte  and  Maize.  Contributions  from  the  Botanical  Laboratory,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  II,  231;  Maize  in  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  II,  398- 
402,  1908;  An  Unusual  Form  of  Maize.  Proceedings  of  the  Delaware  County 
Institute  of  Science,  vi,  49-53,  January,  1911. 

HARTLEY,  C.  P.:  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn.  Farmers'  Bulletin  229,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1905;  Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
313,  1907;  Corn  Cultivation.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  414,  1910;  Seed  Corn.  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  415,  1910;  with  ZOOK,  L.  L.:  Corn  Growing  under  Droughty  Conditions. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  773,  1916. 

H-VYES,  H.  K.:  Inheritance  in  Corn.  Report  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  1911,  407-425. 

HAYES,  H.  K.  and  EAST,  E.  M.:  Inheritance  in  Maize.  Bulletin  167,  The  Connecticut 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  New  Haven,  April,  1911;  Further  Experiments 
on  Inheritance  in  Maize.  Bulletin  188,  do.,  September,  1915. 

HOPKINS,  CYRIL  G.:  The  Chemistry  of  the  Corn  Kernel.  Bulletin  53,  University  of 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Urbana,  July,  1898;  Methods  in  Corn 
Breeding,  Bulletin  82,  do.,  December,  1902;  The  Structure  of  the  Corn  Kernel  and 
the  Composition  of  its  Different  Parts.  Bulletin  87,  do.,  August,  1903. 

HUGHES,  H.  D.:  The  Germination  Test  of  Seed  Corn.  Bulletin  135,  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  Ames, 
Iowa,  February,  1913. 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  177 

HUME,  ALBERT  N. :  The  Testing  of  Corn  for  Seed.     Bulletin  96,  University  of  Illinois, 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Urbana,  November,  1904. 
HUNT,  THOMAS  F.:  The  Cereals  of  America.     New  York,  Orange  Judd  Company, 

1912;  Corn  Growing  in  the  East.     Bulletin  116,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  April,  1912. 
JONES,  W.  J.  and  HUSTON,  H.  A. :  Composition  of  Maize  at  Various  Stages  of  its  Growth. 

Bulletin   175,   Purdue  University  Agricultural  Experiment   Station,  Lafayette, 

Indiana,  1914. 
KEMPTON,  J.  H.:  Inheritance  of  Waxy  Endosperm  in  Maize.     Bulletin  754,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1919. 
KYLE,  C.  H.:  Corn  Culture  in  the  Southeastern  States.     Farmers'  Bulletin  729,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1916. 
LINDSEY,  J.  B. :  The  Feeding  Value  of  Corn  Stover.     Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture,  1896,  353-360. 
LINDSTROM,  E.  W.:  Chlorophyll  Inheritance  in  Maize.     Memoir  13,  Cornell  University, 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ithaca,  August,  1918. 
MONTGOMERY,  E.  G.:  What  is  an  Ear  of  Corn?     Popular  Science  Monthly,  January, 

1906,  pages  55-62;  with  KIESSELBACH,  T.  A.:  Studies  in    the   Water    Require- 
ments of  Corn.     Bulletin   128,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Nebraska, 

Lincoln,  1912. 

MYRICK,  HERBERT:  The  Book  of  Corn.     New  York,  Orange  Judd  Company,  1904. 
PEARL,  RAYMOND  and  SURFACE,  FRANK  M.:  Experiments  in  Breeding  Sweet  Corn. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1910,  249-307. 
PEARL,  RAYMOND  and  BARTLETT,  JAMES  M.:  The  Mendelian  Inheritance  of  Certain 

Chemical    Characters    in  Maize.  '  Zeitschrift  fur  induktive  Abstammungs  und 

Vererbungslehre,  1911,  Bd.  vi,  Heft  i  u.  2,  pages  1-28. 

PLUMB,  C.  S.:  Indian  Corn  Culture.     Chicago,  Breeder's  Gazette  Print,  1903. 
ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.     Philadelphia,  P.  Blakiston's 

Son  &  Co.,  1917. 
SARGENT,  FREDERICK  LEROY:  Corn  Plants,  their  Uses  and  Ways  of  Life.     Boston  and 

New  York,  Hough  ton,  Mifflin  and  Company,  1899. 
SCOFIELD,  CARL  S.:  The  Commercial  Grading  of  Corn.     Bulletin  4,  Bureau  of  Plant 

Industry,  1903. 
SHERARD,  SAM  H.:  Corn  Culture  in  the  Philippine  Islands.     Bulletin  23,  Bureau  of 

Agriculture,  Philippine  Islands,  1912. 
SHULL,   GEORGE  H.:  The  Genotypes  of  Maize.     The  American  Naturalist,    1911, 

234-252. 
STURTEVANT,  E.  L.:  Varieties  of  Corn.     Bulletin  57,  Office  of  the  Experiment  Stations, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1899. 
TRACY,  S.  M.:  Corn  Culture  in  the  South.    Farmers'  Bulletin  81,  U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  1898. 

WEATHERWAX,  PAUL:  Morphology  of  the  Flowers  of  Zea  mays.     Bulletin  Torrey  Bo- 
tanical Club,  43,  127-144,  April,  1916;  The  Development  of  the  Spikelets  of 

Zea  mays,  do,  43,  483-496,  October,  1917;  The  Evolution  of  Maize,  do,  45,  300- 

342,  September,  1918;  Gametogenesis  and  Fecundation Jn  Zea  mays  as  the  Basis 

of  Xenia  and  Heredity  in  the  Endosperm,  do,  46,  73-90,  March,  1919. 
12 


178  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

WEBBER,  HERBERT  J.:  Xenia,  or  the  Immediate  Effect  of  Pollen  in  Maize.  Bulletin 
22,  Division  of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1900. 

WILSON,  ALEXANDER  STEPHEN:  Fertilization  of  Cereals.  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  I, 
340-341  (March  14,  1874). 

WING,  DE  WITT  C.:  The  Improvement  of  Corn  in  Pennsylvania.  Bulletin  133,  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  of  Pennsylvania,  1904. 

WISSLER,  CLARK:  Indian  Corn  as  a  World  Food.  American  Museum  Journal,  January, 
1918,  25-29. 

WOODS,  CHARLES  D.:  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products.  Farmers'  Bulletin  298, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1907. 

ZOOK,  L.  L.:  Tests  of  Corn  Varieties  on  the  Great  Plains.  Bulletin  307,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1915. 

OATS 

CARLETON,  MARK  ALFRED:  Ten  Years  Experience  with  the  Swedish  Select  Oat.  Bull- 
etin 182,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1910;  The 
Small  Grains.  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Company,  1916. 

CHILCOTT,  E.  C.:  Oats  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.  Relation  of  Cultural  Methods  to 
Production.  Bulletin  218,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 

ETHERIDGE,  W.  C. :  A  Classification  of  the  Varieties  of  Cultivated  Oats.  Memoir  10, 
Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  October,  1916  with  33  text 
figures  and  22  plates  in  color. 

FINCH,  U.  C.  and  BAKER,  O.  E.:  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture.  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1917. 

FREEMAN,  W.  G.  and  CHANDLER,  S.  E.:  The  WTorld's  Commercial  Products.  Boston, 
Ginn  and  Company,  1911. 

GARDNER,  FRANK  D.:  Successful  Farming.  Philadelphia,  John  C.  Winston  Company, 
1916. 

HUNT,  THOMAS  J.:  The  Cereals  in  America.     New  York,  Orange  Judd  Company,  1912. 

ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.  Philadelphia,  P.  Blakiston's 
Son  &  Co.,  1917. 

SMITH,  J.  RUSSELL:  The  World's  Food  Resources.  New  York,  Henry  Holt  and  Com- 
pany, 1919. 

WARBURTON,  C.  W.:  Spring  Oat  Production.  Farmers'  Bulletin  892,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  1910;  Oats:  Distribution  and  Uses.  Farmers'  Bulletin  420,  1910; 
Oats:  Growing  the  Crop.  Farmers'  Bulletin  424,  1910;  Winter  Oats  for  the  South. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  436,  1911. 

WHEAT 

BALL,  CARLETON  R.:  Experiments  with  Marquis  Wheat.  Bulletin  400,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1916. 

BALL,  CARLETON  R.  and  CLARK,  ALLEN  J!:  Experiments  with  Durum  Wheat.  Bulletin 
618,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1918. 

BLANCHARD,  HENRY  F.:  Improvement  of  the  Wheat  Crop  in  California.  Bulletin 
178,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1910. 


THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  CEREALS  179 

CARLETON.  MARK  ALFRED:  Macaroni  Wheats.  Bulletin  3,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1901;  Winter  Emmer.  Farmers'  Bulletin  466, 
1911;  with  CHAMBERLAIN,  JOSEPH  S.:  The  Commercial  Status  of  Durum  Wlieat. 
Bulletin  70,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1904. 

CHILCOTT,  E.  C.:  Spring  Wheat  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.  Bulletin  214,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1915;  with  COLE,  JOHN  S.:  Growing  Winter  Wheat  on 
the  Great  Plains.  Farmers'  Bulletin  895,  1917;  and  COLE,  JOHN  S.  and  KUSKA, 
J.  B.:  Winter  Wheat  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.  Bulletin  595,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1917. 

COOK,  O.  F.:  Wild  Wheat  in  Palestine.  Bulletin  274,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1913. 

EDGAR,  WILLIAM  C.:  The  Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  and 
Company,  1903. 

HUNTER,  BYRON:  Dry  Farming  for  Better  Wheat  Yields.  The  Columbia  and  Snake 
River  Basins.  Farmers'  Bulletin  104,  1919. 

LEIGHTY,  CLYDE  E.:  The  Culture  of  Winter  Wheat  in  the  Eastern  United  States. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  596,  1914;  Winter-wheat  Varieties  for  the  Eastern  United 
States.  Farmers'  Bulletin  616,  1914. 

LYON,  T.  L. :  Improving  the  Quality  of  WTheat.  Bulletin  78,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905. 

SALMON,  CECIL  and  CLARK,  J.  ALLEN:  Durum  Wheat.     Farmers'  Bulletin  534,  1913. 

SCOFIELD,  CARL  S.:  The  Algerian  Durum  Wheats.  Bulletin  7,  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1902;  The  Description  of  Wheat  Varieties, 
Bulletin  47,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1903. 

THOMAS,  L.  M.:  A  Comparison  of  Several  Classes  of  American  Wheats  and  a  Con- 
sideration of. Some  Factors  Influencing  Quality.  Bulletin  557,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  1917;  Characteristics  and  Quality  of  Montana-grown  Wheat. 
Bulletin  522,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1917. 

BARLEY 

CHILCOTT,  E.  C.,  COLE,  J.  S.  and  BURR,  W.  W.:  Barley  in  the  Great  Plains  Area. 

Bulletin  222,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915.. 
DERR,  H.  B.:  Barley  Culture  in  the  Southern  States.     Farmers'  Bulletin  427,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1910;  Barley:  Growing  the  Crop.     Farmers'  Bulletin 

443,  1911;  Winter  Barley.     Farmers'  Bulletin  518,  1912. 
HARLAN,  HARRY  V.:  The  Identification  of  Varieties  of  Barley.     Bulletin  622,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1918;  Cultivation  and  Utilization  of  Barley.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  968,  1918. 
MANX,  ALBERT:  Morphology  of  the  Barley  Grain  with  Reference  to  its  Enzym-secreting 

Areas.     Bulletin  183,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 

RYE 

CARLETON,  MARK  ALFRED:  Russian  Cereals  Adapted  for  Cultivation  in  the  United 
States.  Bulletin  23,  Division  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1900. 

LEIGHTY,  CLYDE  E. :  Culture  of  Rye  in  the  Eastern  Half  of  the  United  States.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  756,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1916;  Rye  Growing  in  the  South- 
eastern States.  Farmers'  Bulletin  894,  1917. 


jgo  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

RICE 

CHAMBLISS,  CHARLES  E.:  The  Culture  of  Rice  in  California.  Farmers'  Bulletin  688, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915;  Prairie  Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  1092,  1920. 

FREEMAN,  W.  G.  and  CHANDLER,  S.  E.:  The  World's  Commercial  Products.  Boston, 
Ginn  and  Co.,  1911. 

KNAPP,  S.  A.:  Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States.  Farmers'  Bulletin  no,  1900;  Rice 
Culture.  Farmers'  Bulletin  417,  1910. 

WISE,  F.  B.  and  BROOMELL,  A.  W.:  The  Milling  of  Rice  and  Its  Mechanical  and  Chemi- 
cal Effect  upon  the  Grain.  Bulletin  330,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1916. 

BUCKWHEAT 

GARDNER,   FRANK  D.:   Successful  Farming.     Philadelphia,  The  John   C.   Winston 

Company,  1916. 

HUNT,  THOMAS  F.:  The  Cereals  in  America.    New  York,  Orange  Judd  Company,  1912. 
LEIGHTY,   CLYDE  E.:  Buckwheat.     Farmers'  Bulletin   1062,  U.   S.   Department  of 

Agriculture,  1919. 
ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.    Philadelphia,  P.  Blakiston's 

Son  &  Co.,  1917. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — Plants  with  inflorescences  and  flowers  of  oats,  wheat, 
barley,  rye, and  rice  should  be  dried  in  the  sun  and  then  tied  in  bundles  of  a  hundred, 
or  more.  The  inflorescences  should  be  wrapped  in  stiff  paper  for  preservation.  Ears  of 
maize  should  be  dried  and  kept  in  tin  boxes  and  the  tassel  with  the  unopened  flowers 
should  be  preserved  in  alcohol.  Inflorescences  of  all  the  above  cereals  should  be  kept 
in  alcohol.  Fruits  of  buckwheat  may  be  preserved  in  the  dry  state  and  whole  plants 
with  flowers  in  alcohol.  Suggestions  for  the  conduction  of  laboratory  work  with  the 
cereals  will  be  found  in  HUNT,  HARRIS  F.:  The  Cereals  in  America,  1912,  and  to  that 
book  the  teacher  is  referred. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  in  detail,  following  the  outline  provided  by  the  teacher,  each  of  the 
cereal  plants :  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  rice  and  buckwheat.     This  can  be  done 
in  any  part  of  the  civilized  world,  including  China  and  Japan. 

2.  Draw  and  study  the  caryopses  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye  and  rice. 

3.  Section  the  same  and  apply  the  iodine  test  in  order  to  locate  the  position  of  the 
reserve  food  and  the  embryo. 

4.  Study  microscopic  sections  of  wheat  kernel  in  order  to  locate  the  aleurone  layer. 
This  can  be  pursued  with  the  other  grains,  if  time  permits. 

5.  Draw  and  study  the  early  stages  of  germination  of  the  above  fruits  and  deter- 
mine the  different  parts  of  the  seedlings,  as  they  unfold,  or  show  sequential  development. 

6.  With  such  a  book  for  reference,  as  the  "Manual  of  Corn  Judging,"  by  A.  D. 
Shamel,  New  York,  Orange  Judd  Company  (1903),  learn  to  judge  the  various  ears  of 
corn_kept  for  laboratory  work  in  corn  judging. 


CHAPTER  14 
GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  LEGUMINOS^ 

This  family  of  approximately  487  genera  and  10,782  species  of  plants 
is  next  to  the  grass  family  the  most  important  one  economically  speaking 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  includes  herbs  (clovers),  shrubs  (clammy 
locust)  and  trees  (mesquite,  honey  locust). 

Roots. — Their  roots  are  both  primary  and  secondary  upon  which  are 
found  nodules,  or  tubercles,  of  varying  size.  These  tubercles  are  in- 
habited by  a  bacterium,  Pseudomonas  radicicola,  which  is  active  hi  their 
formation.  It  is  believed  that  this  organism  associated  in  the  galls  or 
tubercles  with  the  leguminous  plants  is  capable  of  utilizing  free  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen,  and  in  some  way  is  able  to  transform  this  inorganic  nitrogen 
into  organic  nitrogen,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  higher  green  leguminous 
plants.1 

Stems. — The  stems  of  the  herbaceous  plants  of  the  family  are  annual 
(peas),  biennial  (sweet  clover)  and  perennial  (alfalfa).  Sometimes  twining 
stems  are  met  with  in  the  herbaceous  stems  (bean),  or  in  the  woody  stems 
(Wistaria),  when  they  are  known  as  lianes.  Occasionally,  as  in  the  genus 
Lathyrus,  the  stems  may  be  winged. 

Leaves. — The  leaves  are  alternate  and  stipulate.  The  stipules,  as  in 
the  pea,  may  be  enlarged  and  leaf-like,  in  other  cases  (black  locust),  they 
may  be  converted  into  spines.  The  leaves  are  simple  (Chorizema),  or 
compound,  palmately,  or  pinnately  compound.  The  palmately  com- 
pound leaf  may  be  trifoliate  of  three  leaflets,  or  as  in  lupine,  there  may  be 
as  many  as  seven  to  eleven  leaflets.  The  pinnately  compound  leaves 
may  be  trifoliate  with  the  middle  leaflet  provided  with  a  longer  petiolule 
than  the  other  two,  or  it  may  have  more  than  three  leaflets,  up  to  many, 
with  a  terminal  leaflet  (odd,  or  imparipinnate),  or  with  a  pair  of  terminal 
leaflets  (parip innate),  or  ending  in  a  simple,  or  a  branched,  tendril 
(tendriliform,  or  cirrhiferous).  The  bases  of  the  leaflets  and  the  base  of 
the  common  petiole  have  swellings  known  as  pulvini.  The  presence  of 
these  pulvini  enables  the  leaflets  to  assume  nyctitroptc  and  hot-sun  posi- 

1  See  Chapter  16. 

181 


182 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


tions,  and  iiTthe  sensitive  plants,  represented  by  Mimosa  pudica,  a  stimu- 
lation of  a  terminal  leaflet,  for  example,  causes  the  movement  of  all  of 
the  leaflets  of  the  compound  leaf,  if  the  stimuli  are  sufficiently  strong. 


FIG.  73. — Details  of  Pea  (Pisum  sativum).  A,  Flower;  B,  Longitudinal  section  of 
flower  showing  ovary,  diadelphous  stamens,  etc.;  C,  diadelphous  stamens  and  style 
witb  stigma;  D,  pistil  of  pea  flower;  E,  seed  deprived  of  its  coats;-F,  floral  diagram; 
5  =  sepals;  p  =  petals;  st  =  stamens;  c  =  carpel. 

The  movement  in  the  sensitive  plants  of  this  family  is  due  to  the  movement 
of  water  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  side  of  the  pulvinus,  so  that  the  whole 


FIG.  74. — A,  Floral  diagram  of  red  bud  (Cercis  canadensis)  of  the  sub  family  CAESAL- 
PINOIDE^:;  B,  Diagram  of  wattle  (Acacia  latifolia)  of  the  'subfamily  MIMOSOIDE^;; 
b  =  bract;  b'  =  bractlet;  s  =  sepals;  p  =  petals;  st  =  stamens;  c  *=  carpel;  a  = 


leaf  drops  through  a  considerable  angle.  The  telegraph  plant  (Desmo- 
dium  gyrans)  shows  spontaneous  movements  of  its  leaflets  upwards  and 
downwards,  changing  their  position  sometimes  by  as  much  as  180°. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    LEGUMINOS^ 


dandard 


Inflorescence  and  Flowers. — The  inflorescence  is  a  raceme  (golden 
chain),  an  umbel,  a  spike-like  raceme,  or  a  head  (capitulum),  as  in  the 
clovers.  The  flowers  are  regular  (Mimosa),  or  mostly  irregular  with  three 
to  five  sepals,  and  usually  five  petals  with  perigynous  insertion.  As 
there  are  three  types  of  flowers,  their  structure  may  be  described  by  ref- 
erence to  the  three  subfamilies,  viz., 
Papilionoidecs  (Fig.  73)  Ccesalpinoidea 
and  Mimosoidea  (Fig.  74).  The 
papilionaceous  flowers  are  irregular 
with  three  to  five  sepals  and  five 
petals,  the  posterior  one  of  which  is 
called  the  vexillum,  standard,  or  flag 
petal;  two  lateral  petals,  the  wings,  or 
alae,  and  two  interior  petals  united  by 
their  edges  to  form  the  keel,  or  carina 
(Figs.  73  and  75).  The  stamens  are 
perigynous  in  insertion,  ten  in  number, 
monadelphous,  diadelphous,  or  occa- 
sionally distinct.  The  standard  in- 
closes the  lateral  petals  in  this  sub- 
family, so  that  the  estivation  is  known 
as  the  vexillary  type.  The  caesal- 
piniaceous  flowers  are  irregular,  or  re- 
gular, with  the  odd  petal,  or  standard, 
inclosed  by  the  two  lateral  petals,  or 
wings,  and  the  stamens  are  generally 
ten  in  number  and  distinct.  The 
mimosaceous  flower  is  regular  with 
three  to  five  petals,  which  are  valvate 
in  the  bud  and  the  stamens  are 

numerous,  or  indefinite,  and   distinct       FIG.    75. — Common    kidney    bean 
(see  floral  diagrams  in  figures  73  and  <•**««*«  vulgar*).    A,  spiral  keel;  B. 

entire  flower.      X2>o.     (Robbins.) 

74-) 

Ovary  and  Fruit. — The  ovary  is  superior  in  all  three  subfamilies.  It 
is  apocarpous  with  one  carpel.  It  is  one-celled  with  parietal  placenta. 
The  style  may  be  long  or  short,  bent,  or  straight  (Fig.  76).  The  fruit  is  a 
pod,  or  legume,  occasionally  a  transversely  divided  pod,  known  as  the  loment. 
Each  division  of  the  loment  is  usually  one-seeded.  The  seeds  are  large 


i84 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


or  small  and  exalbuminous  that  is,  with  the  reserve  food  stored  in  the  seed 
leaves,  or  cotyledons,  which  become  fleshy  as  a  consequence. 

Economic  Plants. — The  economic  plants  of  the  family  are  numerous 
and  their  uses  are  manifold,  on  account  of  the  presence  of  starch  and 
protein,  as  reserve  materials  in  their  seeds  and  other  parts.  Many  legumi- 
nous plants  are  used  as  human  food.  Such  are  the  peas  (Pisum),  beans 
(Phaseolus) ,  broad  bean  (Vicia),  soy  (Soja),  peanut  (A rachis),  lentil  (Lens}, 
whose  seeds  are  used  in  various  ways,  and  the  pods  of  carob  (Ceratonia) 
and  tamarind  (Tamarindus),  are  eaten  by  man.  The  fodder  plants  of 
the  family  include  the  clovers  (Trifolium),  alfalfa  (Medicago)  sweet  clover 
(Melilotus)  sainfoin  (Onobrychis) ,  serradella  (Ornithopus),  cowpea  (Vigna) 


FIG.  76. — Pistil  of  flower  of  common  bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris).     (Robbins  after  Knulh.) 


Timber  Trees. — The  trees  of  the  family  useful  for  timber  and  structural 
wood  are  logwood  (Hamatoxylon  campechianum) ,  black  locust  (Robinia 
pseudacacia) ,  mesquite  (Prosopis  juliflora),  rosewood  (Dalbergia  latifolia) 
and  others.  The  plants,  which  are  capable  of  producing  commercial 
fibers,  are  Crotalaria  juncea,  Sesbania  cannabina,  S.  esculenta,  Aeschyno- 
mene  spinulosa,  Erythrina  suberosa,  etc.  A  considerable  number  of 
plants  yield  gums,  such  as,  copaiva  balsams  (Copaifera),  balsam  of 
tolu  (Toluiferd),  copal  (Hymenaa),  gum  arabic  (Acacia),  gum  kino 
(Pterocarpus).  As  dye-yielding  plants  may  be  mentioned  species  of 
Genista  (yellow),  Indigofera  (blue),  Mu&una  pruriens,  (black),  Hcema- 
toxylon  (purple). 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    LEGUMINOS^E  185 

Drugs. — The  important  drugs  of  this  family  are  abrus  (Abrus  precat- 
orius),  gum  arabic  (Acacia  arabica),  gum  Senegal  (Acacia  Senegal),  balsam 
of  Peru  (Toluifera  Pereira),  wild  indigo  (Baptism  tinctoria},  purging  cassia 
(Cassia  fistula),  copaiba  (Copaiba  oblongifolia,  C.  officinalis) ,  fenu- 
greek (Trigonella  Foeno-groecum),  liquorice  (Glycyrrhiza  glabra),  indigo 
(Indigofera  tinctoria),  physostigma (Physostigma  venenosum), senna  (Acacia 
senna),  tamarind  (Tamarindus  indicus)  and  tragacanth  (Astragalus 
gummiftr).  The  poisonous  plants  of  the  family,  such  as  the  loco  weeds, 
have  been  described  in  a  previous  chapter. 

Garden  Plants. — A  large  number  of  beautiful  garden  plants  belong  to 
this  family.  Such  are  the  sweet  pea  (Lathyrus  odoratus),  genista 
(Cytisus  canariensis) ,  lupine  (Lupinus  pcrennis,  etc),  wistaria  (Wis- 
taria sinensis),  black  locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia) ,  flamboyant  tree 
(Poinciana  regia),  acacia  (Acacia),  etc. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ENGLER,  A.  and  PRANTL,  K.:  Die  naturlichen  Pflanzenfamilien  III,  Teil,  3  Abteilung, 

1894,  7o-384- 
GRAY,  ASA,  revised  by  ROBINSON,  B.  H.  and  FERNALD,  M.  L.:  A  Handbook  of  the 

Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns  of  the  Central  and  Northeastern  United  States  and 

Adjacent  Canada.     (Seventh  Edition),  1908,  499-530. 

HARE,  HOBART  A.,  CASPARI,  CHARLES  and  RUSBY,  H.  H.:  The  National  Standard  Dis- 
pensatory.    (Eighth  Revision),  1905. 

KRAEMER,  HENRY:  Applied  and  Economic  Botany.     1914,  567-577. 
LE  MAOUT,  EMM.  and  DECAISNE,  J.:  A  General  System  of  Botany,  Descriptive  and 

Analytical.    London,  1873,  364-374. 
ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.     Philadelphia,  P.  Blakiston's 

Son  &  Co.,  1917,  413-468. 
WARMING,  Eug.  transl.  by  POTTER,  M.  C.:  A  Handbook  of  Systematic  Botany.     1895, 

466-475. 
WETTSTEIN,    RICHARD    R.    V.5    Handbuch    der    Systematischen    Botanik.     (Zweite 

Auflage),  1911,  656-666. 

LABORATORY  WORKS 

Suggestion  to  Teachers. — During  the  winter  months  when  this  family  will  be 
studied  probably  by  the  class  in  botany,  only  a  relatively  few  plants  will  be  available. 
They  are  sweet  peas  (Lathy nis  odoratus),  genista  (Cytisus  canariensis) ,  chorizeme  (Chori- 
zema  ilicifolia),  and  if  large  greenhouses  are  conveniently  located,  several  species  of 
Acacia  and  Mimosa  may  be  utilized.  In  California  and  the  west  lupines  (Lupinus), 
clovers  (Trifolium)  and  alfalfa  (Medicago),  etc.,  can  be  had.  Flowers  of  a  number  of 
wild  and  cultivated  species  of  this  family,  as  locally  obtainable,  may  be  kept  in  alcohol. 


1 86  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Dried  pods  of  honey  locust,  mesquite,  Kentucky  coffee  tree,  etc.,  may  be  "kept,  and  of 
course  bean,  pea,  broad  bean,  vetch,  lentil,  cowpea,  clover  and  alfalfa  seeds  are  always 
available  for  class  use,  and  may  be  grown  in  flats  or  pots  in  the  laboratory  greenhouse, 
or  window.  If  the  work  is  undertaken  in  spring  and  summer,  out-of-door  species  can 
be  had. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

i-.  Study  the  morphology  of  the  roots,  stem,  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  sweet  pea 
and  compare  with  the  flowers  of  two  other  selected  papilionaceous  types.  These  may 
be  compared  with  alcoholic  Cercis  (C^ESALPINIOIDE^E)  and  Acacia  (MIMOSOIDE^E) 
Other  members  of  the.  family  can  be  selected  according  to  geographic  location. 

2.  Study  the  dried  and  swollen  seeds  of  pea,  bean,  broad  bean  and  clovers.     Draw 
and  then  identify  the  parts  of  the  embryos. 

3.  Scrape  out  some  of  the  reserve  food  materials  on  a  slide,  examine  the  starch 
grains  and  then  stain  with  iodine  solution. 

4.  A  study  of  the  nodules  has  been  reserved  for  a  later  chapter.  • 


CHAPTER  15 
THE  FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^ 

There  are  a  large  number  of  available  plants  of  this  family,  which  can 
be  used  for  forage,  but  the  majority  of  them  although  they  have  been 
introduced  and  tried  have  not  been  tested  sufficiently  to  warrant  their 
general  cultivation.  Such  are  the  sainfoin  (Onobrychis  viciaefolia),  Egyp- 
tian clover  (Trifoliwn  alexandrinum) ,  bur  clover  (Medicago  arabica),  yellow 
clover  (Medicago  lupulina),  Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata),  Florida 
clover  (Desmodium  tortuosum),  purple  vetch  (Vicia  atropurpurea),  and 
velvet  bean  {Mucuna  utilis).  There  are  however,  a  number  of  ex- 
tremely important  species  which  will  be  discussed  in  the  pages  which  fol- 
low. They  are  alfalfa,  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  crimson  clover,  white 
clover,  sweet  clover,  Canadian  field  pea,  cowpea,  soy,  hairy-vetch  and 
the  peanut.  These  plants  are  not  only  useful  in  the  amount  of  forage 
that  they  yield,  but  because  they  are  used  also  as  green  manures  to  enrich 
the  soil  and  in  their  growth  to  crowd  out  weeds. 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  saliva). — The  original  home  of  this  plant  appears  to 
have  been  southwest  of  central  Asia  having  been  cultivated  by  the  Per- 
sians, who  carried  it  with  them  in  the  invasion  of  Greece  about  490  B.C. 
It  was  cultivated  by  the  Romans  at  an  early  date  for  Varro  in  his  "Rerum 
Rusticarum  Libri  Tres,"  Book  I,  Chapter  XLII  speaks  of  the  plant. 
"You  should  take  care  not  to  plant  alfalfa  in  soil  which  is  neither  too  dry 
or  half  wet,  but  in  good  order.  The  authorities  say  that  if  the  soil  is  in 
proper  condition  a  modius  (peck)  and  a  half  of  alfalfa  seed  will  suffice  to 
sow  a  jugerum  of  land.  This  seed  is  sowed  broad-cast  on  the  land  like 
grass  and  grain."  Although  we  have  used  the  name  alfalfa  in  the  above 
account  of  the  plant  introduced  into  Italy  from  Greece,  yet  the  name  is  a 
Moorish  one  introduced  into  Spain  with  the  Moors  in  the  eighth  century, 
whence  it  reached  Mexico  and  South  America  with  the  Spaniards.  The 
name  came  into  current  use  in  California,  when  the  plant  was  introduced 
across  the  border. 

187 


i88 


PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Description. — The  alfalfa  is  a  perennial  member  of  the  leguminous 
family  with  deep  growing  roots  penetrating  usually  to  about  nine  feet, 
but  under  exceptional  conditions  to  a  depth  of  forty  and  even  sixty  feet. 
The  aerial  stems  are  ascending,  or  erect,  and  increase  in  number  with 
successive  cuttings,  so  that  a  single  root  system  may  give  rise  to  as  many 
as  one  hundred  stems,  although  usually  the  number  varies  from  twenty  to 


Pic.  77. — Alfalfa,  or  lucern  (Medicago  saliva):  a,  b,  seed  pod,  side  and  end  view: 
c,  seeds,  enlarged.  (After  Smith,  Jared  G.:  Meadows  and  Pastures.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
66,  1904,  p.  27.) 

fifty.  Three  cuttings  are  made  yearly  throughout  the  alfalfa-growing 
regions  of  the  United  States,  although  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  California, 
as  many  as  nine  cuttings  have  been  made  in  one  year.  The  leaves  are 
with  a  serrate  margin  (Fig.  7 7) .  The  inflorescence  is  a  short,  dense  raceme 
with  purple,  papilionaceous  flowers.  The  color  may  at  times  be  green, 
blue  or  yellow.  The  calyx  teeth  are  longer  than  the  so  called  calyx  tube. 
The  standard  exceeds  the  wings,in  length,  which  are  longer  than  the  keel. 


FORAGE   PLANTS    OF  .THE   FAMILY   LEGUMINOS^E 


189 


untripped 


tripped 


The  staminal  tube  of  ten,  diadelphous  stamens  is  held  in  a  state  of  tension 
by  two  opposite  lateral  projections  arising  from  the  inside  of  the  keel. 
This  mechanism  brings  about  the  explosive  discharge  of  the  pollen,  when 
the  staminal  tube  is  released,  and  the  pistil  and  stamen  snap  up  against 
the  standard  and  this  process  is 
known  as  "tripping."  Bumble- 
bees and  leaf-cutting  bees  are 
usually  the  "trippers"  of  alfalfa 
flowers  (Fig.  78).  Insect  visita- 
tion induces  cross  pollination, 
but  automatic  release  of  the 
floral  parts  by  the  action  of 
humidity  and  temperatures  re- 
sults in  self  pollination.  An 
abundance  of  insect  life  usually 
increases  the  output  of  seeds. 
Other  conditions  of  climate  and 
cultivation  also  influence  seed 
production.  The  alfalfa  fruit  is 
a  spirally  coiled  pod  with  two  or 
three  coats.  Each  pod  contains 
from  one  to  eight  kidney-shaped 
seeds  about  ^  inch  long,  which, 
retain  their  vitality  for  many  , 
years  (Fig.  77). 

Varieties. — There  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  varieties  of 
alfalfa  in  cultivation.  There  is 
a  hardy  variety  suitable  for 

FIG.  78. — Pollination  of  alfalfa.     A,  flower 


unfnpped 


tripped 


„,,.     untripped  with  calyx  and  standard  removed; 
ims  B,  same  tripped;  C,  position  of  staminal  tube 


growth   in   the    cold    northwest 
known  as  Grimm  alfalfa. 

hardiness  may  be  due  to  a  Strain  untripped  and  tripped.     (Robbins  after   U.  S. 

of    the    yellow-flowered    alfalfa  Dept' AgrL) 

(Medicago  falcata).  There  is  the  sand  lucern  and  variegated  alfalfa  and 
varieties  designated  by  the  names  of  the  countries  of  their  derivation,  as 
the  American,  Arabian,  German,  Peruvian  and  Turkestan  varieties. 
The  Turkestan  variety  is  well-adapted  to  drought  resistance.  Arabian 
alfalfa  is  suited  to  warm  conditions,  as  in  Arizona  and  Texas,  while 
Peruvian  alfalfa  is  adapted  to  countries  where  irrigation  is  practiced. 


1 90  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

Soil  and  Planting. — The  soil  should  be  in  excellent  tilth  at  planting 
time  with  a  fine  top  for  the  seeding  bed.  The  soil  should  be  neutral  and 
well  drained  with  an  open  sub-soil  permitting  the  penetration  of  the  al- 
falfa roots.  The  seeds  should  be  carefully  selected  with  perfect  vitality 
and  clear  of  weed  seeds.  Southern-grown  seeds  should  not  be  used  in  the 
north  as  there  is  a  danger  of  winter-killing.  The  time  of  sowing  alfalfa 
varies  in  the  different  sections  of  the  country,  but  late  summer  seeding  is 
usually  best  in  the  east  and  south.  Spring  seeding  is  the  rule  in  the  irri- 
gated and  semi-arid  sections  of  the  west.  The  seeds  should  be  covered  and 
not  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Alfalfa  may  be  planted  with  a 
drill,  or  seeded  broad-cast  with  a  hand  seeder,  or  wheel-barrow  seeder. 
It  is  usually  best  to  sow  half  the  seed  one  way  across  the  field  and  the  other 
half  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  first  sowing.  The  quantity  of  seed 
required  per  acre  is  greater  in  the  humid  sections  than  hi  the  semi-arid 
and  irrigated  regions.  Twenty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  usually  recom 
mended,  although  in  the  west  fair  stands  have  been  secured  with  one  to 
five  pounds.  A  pound  of  ordinary  alfalfa  contains  220,000  seeds. 

Treatment. — If  seeded  in  the  late  summer  or  early  autumn,  alfalfa 
will  require  no  treatment  that  fall  unless  it  grows  a  foot  long  before  winter 
arrives.  Then  it  should  be  clipped  back  to  about  eight,  or  ten  inches. 
The  first  cutting  of  hay  should  be  secured  in  the  late  spring.  Ordinarily, 
no  treatment  is  required  during  the  second  season,  except  to  cut  the  plants 
when  they  are  about  one-tenth  in  bloom.  No  pasturing  should  be  al- 
lowed during  the  first  and  second  seaspns.  As  alfalfa  lasts  about  twelve 
years,  the  subsequent  care  of  the  crop  should  be  governed  by  the  appear- 
ance of  weeds  and  bare  spots.  A  disk  harrow  may  be  used  advantageously 
in  loosening  up  the  soil  and  destroying  weeds. 

Harvesting. — The  methods  of  harvesting  hay  vary  considerably.  The 
ideal  should  be  to  get  the  alfalfa  into  the  loft  with  the  least  possible  hand- 
ling and  exposure  to  the  weather,  as  its  leaflets  readily  drop  off.  This 
results  in  a  serious  loss,  as  three-fifths  of  all  the  protein  in  the  plant  is 
contained  in  the  leaves.  The  hay  may  be  stacked,  or  baleVi,  or  converted 
into  ensilage.  Alfalfa  is  an  ideal  soiling  crop.  Grazing  of  the  plant 
should  be  done  sparingly. 

Use  as  a  Feed. — Alfalfa  can  be  used  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  as 
roughage  for  beef  cattle.  Alfalfa  is  an  ideal  hay  for  sheep,  but  it  is  apt 
to  cause  bloat,  if  the  sheep  are  turned  into  alfalfa  pastures.  Hogs  may 
be  fed  cut  alfalfa  hi  the  green  state,  or  in  pasture  and  horses  too  may  be 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^ 


191 


given  green  alfalfa  and  hay  made  from  the  plant.  Alfalfa  is  an  excellent 
feed  for  poultry  and  its  nectar  is  converted  by  bees  into  excellent  honey. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  highly  nutritious  and  palatable  of  feeds  either  in  the 
green  state,  or  as  hay.  Fresh  alfalfa  contains  71.8  per  cent,  of  water: 

2.7  per  cent,  of  ash;  4.8  per  cent, 
protein;  7.4  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber; 
12.3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  free  ex- 
tract and  i.o  per  cent,  of  the  ex- 
tract fat.  Alfalfa  hay  contains  8.4 
per  cent,  of  water;  7.5  per  cent,  of 
ash;  14.3  per  cent,  of  protein;  25.0 
per  cent,  of  crude  fiber;  42.7  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen  free  extract  and 
2.2  per  cent,  of  the  extract  (fat). 
The  value  of  alfalfa  hay  is  slightly 
more  than  double  that  of  timothy. 
Alfalfa  hay  is  richer  than  red  clover 


PIG.  79.  FIG.  80. 

FIG.  79. — Red  clover  (Trifolium  pratense}.     (After  Piper, *C.  V.:  Leguminous  Crops  for 

Green  Manuring.     Farmers'  Bulletin.  278,  1907,  p.  15.) 

FIG.  80. — Stages  in  the  development  of  red  clover  seed:  a  and'c,  Flower  in  prime  and 
ripe;  b  and  d,  immature  and  mature  seed  vessel;  e,  mature  seed.  (After  Westgate,  J.  M. 
and  Hillman,  F.  H.:  Red  Clover.  Farmers'  Bulletin  455,  1915,  p.  9.) 

hay  in  digestible  crude  protein,  but  is  lower  hi  fat  and  contains  slightly 
less  digestible  carbohydrates.  Respiration  experiments  show  that  clover 
hay  furnishes  slightly  more  net  nutrients  than  alfalfa  hay. 

Red  Clover  (Trifolium  pratense). — Red  Top  is  a  biennial,  or  a  peren- 
nial plant  of  short  duration  with  spreading  stems  eighteen  inches  to  two 


1 92  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

feet  tall  and  pubescent  from  a  tap  root,  which  reaches  a  depth  of  three  to 
six  feet.  The  stipules  are  large  at  the  base  of  a  petiole,  which  is  two  to 
three  inches  long,  bearing  three  ovate  to  elliptic  leaflets  with  an  entire 
margin.  The  floral  heads  are  large,  globose  to  hemispherical  with  pink 
papilionaceous  flowers  (Fig.  79).  The  calyx  is  five- toothed,  with  narrow, 
hairy  teeth.  The  pod  is  one-  to  two-seeded  (Fig.  80).  This  clover  was 
introduced  from  Europe  and  is  now  growing  spontaneously  throughout 
North  America.  Linnaeus  in  his  original  description  of  the  plant  in 
"Species  Plantarum,"  1753,  says  "Habitat  in  Europae  graminosis." 
Protandry  is  the  rule  with  red  clover  flowers  and  they  must  be  cross- 
pollinated  in  order  to  set  seed.  The  story,  that  red  clover  grown  in  New 
Zealand  failed  to  set  seed  until  the  bumble  bee  was  introduced  into  the 
country,  has  been  contradicted,  but  this  can  be  said  that  the  bumble  bee 
is  the  most  efficient  of  all  the  insect  pollinating  agents,  while  the  honey 
bee  with  a  proboscis  6  mm.  in  length  is  3.6  mm.  shorter  than  the  average 
of  the  corolla  tubes  of  the  first  crop,  red  clover  flowers.  In  191 1 ,  the  honey 
bee  proved  to  be  an  efficient  cross  pollinator. 

Treatment. — Red  clover  is  the  staple,  leguminous  forage  crop  in  the 
north  central  and  northeastern  states.  Any  soil  that  will  grow  satis- 
factory crops  of  corn  will  produce  good  return^  from  red  clover.  A  deep 
soil  is  desirable  as  the  roots  extend  some  distance  into  it.  The  presence 
of  humus  is  requisite  as  the  plant  does  not  grow  well  in  its  absence.  Red 
clover  is  usually  sowed  in  the  spring  on  winter  grain,  and  at  that  time  no 
special  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  is  necessary,  as  the  first  has  pulverized 
the  soil.  Clover  seed  should  be  sown  with  one  of  the  various  kinds  of 
grass  seed  drills  on  the  market  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre  planted  one  to  two  inches  deep.  This  weight  of  seed  is  often 
mixed  with  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  timothy.  When  seeded  with  a  grain 
nurse  crop,  no  special  treatment  is  given  clover  the  first  season.  It  de- 
velops in  the  stubble  after  the  grain  has  been  cut  and  occasionally  may 
afford  some  pasture  the  same  fall.  Cutting  should  be  deferred  until  the 
second  year,  when  a  cut  can  be  made  for  hay  and  a  second  crop  for  seed. 
When  mixed  with  timothy,  the  stand  is  often  allowed  to  remain  three  or 
four  years  with  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  clover  plants.  When  seeded  in 
the  fall  in  corn  or  with  rape,  one  or  two  crops  may  be  expected  the  fol- 
lowing season  in  addition  to  considerable  pasture.  A  top-dressing  of 
barn-yard  manure  at  any  time  acts  beneficially  on  red  clover. 

Harvesting  and  Yield. — Red  clover  is  best  harvested  for  hay  when  one- 
third  of  the  blossoms  have  begun  to  turn  brown.  At  this  time  the  plant 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^       193 

contains  the  maximum  of  nutrients.  When  cut  as  a  soiling  crop,  the  cut- 
ting may  begin,  as  soon,  as  the  first  flowers  appear,  and  if  used  for  silage, 
the  plants  should  be  fully  mature.  Some  farmers  prefer  to  pasture  their 
clover  instead  of  cutting  it.  Sometimes  the  crop  is  grown  for  seed  which 
may  be  successfully  produced  in  regions  where  clover  hay  is  produced. 
Each  head  produces  an  average  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  seeds  each,  which 
would  make  the  yield  one  to  two  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  self-rake  reaper 
is  the  best  machine  to  harvest  the  crop  for  seed,  while  a  clover  huller  is 
used  in  the  threshing  operations.  The  average  yield  of  clover  hay  per 
acre,  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  was  1.29  tons,  but  under  favorable 
conditions  the  yield  in  two  cuttings  ranged  from  two  to  four  tons  to  the 
acre. 

Nutrient  Value. — Red  Clover  is  one  of  the  most  highly  nutritious 
forage  plants  either  in  the  green  state,  or  cured  as  hay.  Clover  hay  con- 
tains 15.3  per  cent,  water,  6.2  per  cent,  ash,  12.3  per  cent,  protein,  24.8 
per  cent,  crude  pro  tern,  38.1  per  cent,  introgen  free  extract,  3.3  per  cent. 
ether  extract  (fat),  of  these  constituents  67  per  cent,  protein  53  per  cent, 
crude  fiber  78  per  cent,  nitrogen-free  extract  and  65  per  cent,  ether  ex- 
tract (fat)  are  digestible.  Many  rotations  in  which  red  clover  enters  have 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  agriculture  of  America.  A  common 
rotation  is  corn  followed  by  oats,  which  hi  turn  are  followed  by  wheat. 
The  wheat  in  turn  acts  as  a  nurse  crop  for  the  red  clover  sown  with  it. 
After  clover  has  stood  two  years,  the  clover  soil  is  plowed  down  to  cosn 
again.  There  are  rotations  of  clover  with  rye  or  cotton,  etc. 

Varieties. — The  recognized  varieties  of  red  clover  are  the  ordinary 
red  clover,  the  mammoth  red  clover,  the  Russian  red  clovers  and  special 
forms  of  red  clover,  which  have  been  bred  for  their  disease-resistant  quali- 
ties. 

Alsike  Clover  (Trifolium  kybridum). — This  is  a  clover  intermediate 
in  appearance  between  red  and  white  clover  and  was  supposed  by  Linnaeus 
to  be  a  natural  hybrid  of  the  two  other  clovers.  Alsike  clover  is  adapted 
remarkably  to  wet  soils  and  also  to  soils  which  are  too  low  in  humus  to 
grow  red  clover  to  advantage.  Seed  may  be  obtained  from  the  first  crop 
although  an  early  clipping,  especially  if  there  is  a  wet  spring,  will  result 
in  a  better  crop  of  seed.  Excellent  honey  is  obtained  from  the  flower. 
The  alsike  clover  plant  is  a  perennial  plant  lasting  from  three  to  five  years 
and  longer.  It  is  an  erect,  branching,  rather  stout,  smooth  herb  growing 
one  to  three  feet  tall  arising  from  a  large  tap  root.  The  leaves  are  long 


194 


PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


with  greenish  veins  and  taper-pointed  stipules.  They  have  a  slightly 
bitter  taste.  The  flowers  are  pedicelled  and  white  to  pink.  The  pods 
are  two-  to  four-seeded.  The  seeds  lose  their  vitality  rapidly  after  the 
second  year.  The  seed  is  smaller  than  red  clover  and  is  seeded  at  the 
rate  of  four  to  eight  pounds  per  acre.  The  plant  is  hardier  than  red  clover 
and  matures  about  two  weeks  earlier,  and  therefore,  should  be  grown 
with  early  maturing  grasses,  such  as,  orchard 
grass  and  red  top. 

Crimson  Clover  ( Trifolium  incarnatum) . — 
The  French  clover  is  an  erect,  pubescent 
annual  growing  from  six  inches  to  two  feet 
tall.  Its  leaves  have  long  petioles  with 
purple-margined,  broad  stipules  (Fig.  81). 
The  bright  crimson  flowers  are  produced  in  a 
spike,  which  is  two  or  three  inches  long. 
The  seed  is  shiny,  when  fresh,  and  of  a  pink 
color.  This  clover  is  a  native  of  Mediter- 
ranean Europe  and  has  been  cultivated  in 
this  country  since  1822. 

Treatment. — It  is  adapted  especially  for 
use  as  a  cover  crop,  and  as  a  green  manure 
in  the  Atlantic  states.  It  is  seeded  in 
August  alone,  or  in  corn.  The  special  advan- 
tage in  its  growth  lies  in  the  fact  that  its 
autumn,  winter  and  early  spring  develop- 
ment, is  sufficient  so  that  it  may  be  turned 
under  the  following  spring  in  time  for  the 
planting  of  another  crop,  such  as  corn  in  the 
north,  or  cotton  in  the  south.  It  is  also 


81. — Crimson    clover 
(Trifolium  incarnatum) .    (After 


Bail,  Carieton  R.:  Winter  Forage    valuable  for  pasturing,  soiling,  or  for  ensilage 

SX,-i"4?'i9o*  "P.  3™"'    CominS  at  a  time  when  other  green  fora8e  is 
scarce.     It  should  not  be  fed  when  the  flowers 

have  developed,  for  as  previously  narrated,  crimson  clover  hair  balls  may 
kill  horses  and  other  animals  by  an  obstruction  of  the  bowels.  Both 
the  hay  and  seed  crops  are  handled  in  about  the  same  way  as  red  clover. 
It  is  a  hard  crop  to  establish  for  the  absence  of  rains  in  late  summer  is 
responsible  for  most  of  the  failures  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  stand. 
Crimson  clover  is  benefitted  by  a  liming  of  the  soil.  Shallow  seeding, 


FORAGE   PLANTS   OF   THE   FAMILY   LEGUMINOS^E  1 95 

using  fifteen  pounds  per  acre,  has  been  found  to  be  the  best  practice. 
Ordinarily  no  special  treatment  is  required  after  seeding  and  before  the 
winter  arrives.  Some  fall  pasturage  may  be  obtained,  if  the  growth  be 
sufficiently  rank. 

Use. — Crimson-clover  hay  is  considered  by  dairymen  to  be  fully  equal, 
if  not  superior,  to  red,  or  alsike  clover,  as  a  roughage  for  their  cows,  sheep, 
horses,  mules  and  other  animals  in  sections  where  grown.  It  is  gathered 
to  some  extent  for  the  making  of  bouquets,  when  in  full  flower. 


FIG.  82. — White  clover,  showing  creeping  habit,  one-half  natural  size.  (After 
Jones,  L.  R.:  Vermont  Grasses  and  Clovers.  Bulletin  94,  Vermont  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  May,  1902.) 

White  Clover  (Trifolium  repens). — This  clover,  growing  wild  every- 
where in  America,  was  introduced  from  Europe.  In  Ireland,  it  is  known  as 
the  shamrock  and  is  raised  in  pots  for  distribution  by  the  big  department 
stores  on  St.  Patrick's  day.  The  plant  is  perennial  growing  by  means 
of  prostrate  stems  rooting  at  the  nodes  (Fig.  82).  The  leaves  are  tri- 
foliate, obcordate  with  narrow  membranous  stipules.  The  inflorescence 
is  a  head  of  white,  or  pinkish  flowers,  which  are  fragrant  and  yield  a  honey 
of  the  first  quality.  The  mature  flowers,  which  turn  brown  in  color,  are 


196 


PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


reflexed  on  the  peduncle  of  the  head.  Cross  pollination  by  insects  is  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  seeds.  The  small  pods  are  usually  four  seeded. 
Utility. — The  plant  is  adapted  only  for  pasturage,  as  it  does  not  attain 
sufficient  height  to  be  mown  for  hay.  Some  attribute  the  fine  flavor  of 
the  mutton  from  the  Southdown  breed  of  sheep  in  England,  as  due  to  the 
animals  feeding  on  the  white  clover  pasturage  of  the  chalk  downs  of  the 
south-eastern  part  of  that  country.  However,  that  may  be,  white  clover  is 
a  plant  which  can  withstand  the  close  crop- 
ping to  which  turf  is  subjected  by  flocks  of 
sheep  feeding  in  the  open.  White  clover  is 
frequently  used  in  lawn  mixtures,  but  on 
golf  courses,  it  is  not  usually  welcomed. 
The  good  points  of  white  clover  as  a  turf 
plant  are  its  ability  to  grow  on  poor  soil,  to 
form  a  close,  dense  mat,  and  to  withstand 
very  close  clipping.  On  putting  greens, 
white  clover  is  looked  upon  as  a  weed. 

Rotation. — The  seed  crop  matures  in  July 
and  August  in  the  northern  states  and  the 
yield  of  seed  varies  from  two  to  six  bushels 
per  acre.  A  two-year  rotation  of  barley  one 
year  followed  by  white  clover  for  seed  the 
second  is  common  in  eastern-central 
Wisconsin.  Elsewhere,  it  is  seeded  with 
bluegrass,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  causes  bloat 
as  red  clover  is  apt  to  do.  The  giant  white, 
or  Ladmo  clover  (Trifolium  repens  var.  lota) 
Bot..  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture),  is  a  tall-growing  varietv  of  white  clover 
S^Tweliof  foTa^Buii"*,  originally  from  Italy  affords  good  pasturage. 

Experiment  Station,  Iowa  State  Sweet      CloVCI      (MdilotUS      alba). — The 


College,  1903,  p.  352.) 


ordinary,  white  sweet    clover  is   a  biennial 


plant  developing  from  a  heavy  tap-root  with  lateral  branches  and  with 
small  white  tubercles  on  the  smaller  rootlets  and  near  the  crown  of 
the  root.  During  the  first  year,  it  is  an  erect,  stemmy  plant  with  some- 
what scattered  leaves.  These  leaves  are  petioled  and  pinnately  trifoliate 
and  at  their  bases  are  large  stipules.  The  flowers  are  small  borne  in  long, 
slender  racemes  (Fig.  83).  The  calyx  teeth  are  short  and  subequal. 
The  standard  is  obovate,  or  oblong,  the  wings  oblong  and  the  keel  short 


FORAGE   PLANTS    OF    THE    FAMILY    LEGUMINOS^  1 97 

and  obtuse.  Ten  diadelphous  stamens  occur  and  the  ovary  is  superior 
with  a  thread-like  style.  The  pods  are  globose,  small  and  one-seeded. 
The  first  season  it  makes  a  growth  of  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  in  height 
and  stores  in  the  tap-root  a  considerable  amount  of  reserve  food.  During 
the  second  season,  it  makes  a  growth  of  five  to  twelve  feet  and  dies  when 
the  seeds  are  mature. 

Distribution  and  Soils. — The  sweet  clover,  also  known  as  Bokhara 
clover,  is  a  native  of  central  Asia  introduced  about  two  thousand  years 
ago  into  the  Mediterranean  region,  where  it  has  been  utilized  as  a  honey 
plant  and  for  forage  purposes.  It  was  introduced  into  America  as  early 
as  1738,  but  its  value  was  not  recognized  until  about  twenty  years  ago. 
It  is  at  present  grown  extensively  as  a  field  crop  in  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Kentucky  and  Utah  and  locally  on  a  field  scale  in  Nebraska,  Colorado, 
Wyoming,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  About  Phila- 
delphia, it  is  thoroughly  naturalized.  It  is  an  indicator  of  good  alfalfa 
soils,  for  where  sweet  clover  grows,  alfalfa  will  grow,  and  as  it  is  spread 
over  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  this  test  is  of  general  applicability 
through  the  length  and  breadth  of  our  land.  Almost  any  reasonable 
well-drained  soil  will  grow  sweet  clover.  It  is  more  tolerant  of  poor 
draining  than  either  alfalfa,  or  red  clover.  It  makes  its  best  growth  on 
rich,  well-limed  soils. 

Seeding. — The  seed  bed  should  be  well  compacted  with  enough  loose 
soil  on  top  to  cover  the  seeds  which  are  sown  at  the  rate  of  twenty  to 
thirty  pounds  of  hulled  seeds  and  at  least  five  pounds  more  of  unhulled 
seed  per  acre.  Early  spring  seeding  has  been  found  satisfactory  in  many 
sections.  When  sown  in  ordinary  cultivated  fields,  sweet  clover  is  usu- 
ally sown  later  in  the  spring  and  with  a  nurse  crop  of  spring-sown  grain. 
Fall  seeding  is  successful  in  regions  with  mild  winters.  Where  seeded 
in  the  spring  without  a  nurse  crop,  no  special  treatment  is  required  the 
first  season  unless  it  is  necessary  to  check  the  weeds.  When  seeded  with 
a  nurse  crop,  such  a  crop  may  be  cut  for  grain,  if  the  moisture  conditions 
are  favorable,  but  if  a  drought  threatens  the  sweet-clover,  the  crop  should 
be  cut  for  hay.  A  good  hay  crop,  or  summer  pasture,  may  be  obtained 
in  the  south  in  the  first  season  even  when  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  but  in 
the  north  a  small  amount  of  late  pasture  only  is  usually  available. 

Pasturage  and  Hay. — Sweet  clover  produces  good  pasturage  very 
early  in  the  spring  before  other  pasture  plants  commence  growth.  It 
will  furnish  a  good  hay  crop  in  the  north  in  the  latter  part  of  June  and  a 


198  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

second  crop  of  hay,  or  seed  late  in  the  summer.  Two  crops  of  hay  and 
one  of  seed  may  be  obtained  in  the  south  during  the  second  season.  Sweet 
clover  plants  are  raked  into  windrows  just  before  the  leaves  become  dry 


FIG.  84. — Canada  pea  (Pisum  sativum).  (After  Mairs,  T.  J.:  Some  Soiling  Crops 
for  Pennsylvania.  Bull.  109,  Pennsylvania  State  College  Agricultural  Experiment 
.Station,  1911,  p.  5.) 

enough  to  shake  off  the  stems.     After  a  day  in  the  windrows,  it  is  shocked 
and  cured. 

Nutritive  Valve. — Sweet  clover  may  be  used  as  a  soiling  plant,  or  as  a 
pasture  plant  and  is  a  useful  soil  renovator.     It  is  palatable  and  nutri- 


FORAGE    PLANTS    OF    THE    FAMILY    LfcGUMINOSJE 


199 


tious,  although  it  has  a  bitter  taste  due  to  its  cumarin  content.  Fresh 
sweet  clover  has  the  following  composition:  water  77.0  per  cent.,  ash  1.8 
per  cent.,  protein  3.9  per  cent.,  crude  fiber  6.9  per  cent.,  nitrogen-free 
extract  9.4  per  cent,  and  ether  extract  (fat)  0.6  per  cent.  Sweet  clover 
hay  contains  water  7.7  per  cent.,  ash  7.5  per  cent.,  protein  13.3  per  cent., 
crude  fiber  26.9  per  cent.,  nitrogen-free  extract  42.6  per  cent,  and  ether 
extract  2 .  i  per  cent.  It  has  been  determined  that  the  value  of  sweet-clover 
hay  is  almost  double  that  of  timothy  and  inter- 
mediate between  red  clover  and  alfalfa.  • 

Field  Pea  (Pisum  sativum  var.  arvense}. — The 
field  pea  also  called  the  Canadian  field  pea  (Fig. 
84)  differs  slightly  from  the  garden  pea  (P.  sativum) 
(Fig.  85).  They  have  violet  flowers  and  small  gray, 
or  buff  seeds,  which  are  rather  angular,  but  not 
wrinkled,  while  garden  peas  have  white  flowers  and 
whiter,  more  globular  seeds,  which  may  be  either 
smooth,  or  wrinkled.  The  field  pea  has  hollow, 
sparingly  branched  stems,  two  to  five  feet  long 
with  leaves  bearing  two,  or  three  pairs  of  leaflets, 
one,  or  two  inches  long  and  ending  in  one  or  more 
pairs  of  tendrils  and  a  long  median  tendril.  There 
are  present  leafy  stipules.  Two,  or  more  flowers 
are  borne  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  flower 
stalks  shorter  than  the  leaves.  The  legume  is 
finally  flat,  many-seeded  and  from  two  to  four 
inches  long.  The  seeds  are  smooth,  hard  and 


Farmers'  Bulletin 
1900,  p.  13-) 


FIG.  85. — Pods  of 
garden  pea  (Pisum 
sativum) .  (After  A  bel, 
Mary  H.:  Beans,  Peas 

rather,  angular  and  gray-green,  gray-yellowish,  or    and   other   Legumes   as 

gray  dotted  with  purple,  blue,  rust-red,  or  brownish    Food- 

spots. 

Cultivation  and  Harvesting. — The  plant  is  adapted  to  growth  in 
climates  with  a  cool  growing  season,  as  in  Canada,  Michigan  and  Wiscon- 
sin. The  yield  in  Canada  is  from  thirty-five  to  forty  bushels  and  in  the 
above  states  sixteen  bushels  per  acre.  Any  soil,  that  will  raise  oats,  will 
raise  field  peas.  Sandy  soils  are  better  than  clay  soils.  The  pea  has  a 
high  germinating  power  and  will  start  at  quite  a  low  temperature.  The 
seeds  should  be  sown,  as  early,  as  possible  in  the  spring,  and  hence,  sandy 
soils  permit  the  adoption  of  this  principle  of  sowing.  Peas  should  be 
sown  deeply  and  broadcast.  A  disk  harrow  should  be  used  to  cover  the 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


seeds,  which  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  1.5  to  3.5  bushels  per  acre. 

Harvesting  is  difficult,  because  of  the  prostrate  habit  of  the  plants.    They 

may  be  cut  with  the  ordinary 
mowing  machine  and  raked 
into  piles  with  a  sulky  rake. 
It  is  customary  to  harvest 
when  two-thirds  of  the  pods 
are  yellow.  When  dried,  the 
hay  should  be  stacked  under 
cover,  or  threshed  at  once  with 
a  pea  huller. 

Utility.— Peas  furnish  a 
good  food  for  milk  cows,  swine, 
sheep,  horses  and  cattle.  Peas 
grown  with  some  other  kinds  of 
grain  are  of  great  value  as  a 
soiling  crop.  Peas  can  be  used 
as  nitrogen  gatherers,  and 
therefore,  for  green  manure. 
Field  peas  are  treated  as  a  hay 
crop,  for  the  making  of  silage 
and  is  a  cover  crop.  The 
Ontario  Station  after  testing 
for  six  years  found  a  yield  of 
28.1  bushels  per  acre  from 
large  seed  and  23  bushels  from 
small  seed. 

Cowpea  (Vigna  sinensis). — 
This  plant  is  related  to  the 
asparagus  bean  (Vigna  sesqui- 

FIG.  86. — Cowpea  (Vigna  sinensis)  with  pods  pedalis)  and    to     the     catjang 

and  leaves.     (After  Mairs,   T.  J.:  Some  Soiling  /Tr.  .        N         ™,           ,., 

Crops  for  Pennyslvania,  Bull.    109,  Pennsylvania  (Vigna  catjang).        The      dlf- 

State    College    Agricultural    Experiment    Station,  ferences  botanically   by  which 

1911,  p.  7.     Oirginally  on  p.  IT,   U.  S.  Farmers'   .,  .                 ,.  ,.         .  i     j 

Bulletin  278,  1907.)  these  sPecies  are  distinguished 

are  comparatively  slight,  and 

the  species  are  connected  through  intermediate  varieties.  The  cow- 
pea  (Vigna  sinensis)  is  an  annual,  prostrate,  trailing  to  half-bushy 
plant  having  compound  trifoliate  leaves  with  broadly  ovate  leaflets. 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^        2OI 

The  flowers  are  white,  or  pale  violet  with  three  bractlets  at  the  base  of 
each  pedicel,  and  they  are  close  pollinated,  although  the  flowers  are  visited 
by  honey  bees  and  bumble-bees  attracted  by  the  extrafloral  nectaries. 
The  pods  are  long,  cylindrical,  cuived  and  usually  constricted  between  the 
many  seeds,  which  are  bean-shaped,  spotted,  marbled  and  speckled  with 
a  dark  circle  around  the  white  hilum.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  the  cow- 
pea  are  Whippoorwih1,  Wonderful,  New  Era,  Groit,  Iron,  Clay,  Black, 
Taylor  and  Red  Ripper  (Fig.  86). 

Utility. — The  cowpea  is  the  most  common  legume  planted  in  the  entire 
cotton  belt  and  it  can  be  profitably  grown  much  farther  north.  It  is 
especially  suitable  for  combined  hay  and  seed  production,  or  for  hay 
alone,  and  it  is  utilized  for  pasture  and  as  a  green  manure  for  soil  improve- 
ment. Cowpeas  for  hay  production  are  grown  advantageously  in  mixture 
with  sorghum,  Johnson  grass,  or  soy-beans.  The  yield  is  thus  increased, 
the  quality  improved,  and  the  curing  more  easily  done.  To  make  good 
cowpea  hay  requires  a  careful  handling  of  the  crop.  The  use  of  a  tedder 
is  helpful,  and  the  curing  is  best  done  in  small  cocks,  and  the  hay  is  ready 
for  the  stack,  or  barn,  when  no  moisture  can  be  wrung  from  the  stem  by 
twisting  it  with  considerable  force.  Cowpea  hay  is  very  nutritious  being 
nearly  equal  to  wheat  bran  as  a  part  of  a  ration. 

Rotations. — The  following  rotations  have  been  used  in  the  south 
with  good  results '.  cotton  three  years;  corn  and  cowpeas  fourth  year 
and  then  cotton  again.  This  is  satisfactory  for  the  better  soils,  but 
for  the  poorer  soils  cotton  should  be  planted  for  only  two  years.  Wheat, 
or  oats,  can  be  grown  with  cowpeas  each  season  after  removal  of  the  grain 
crop.  The  land  is  seeded  to  grain  again  in  the  fall,  making  two  crops  a 
year  from  the  same  land.  Cotton,  first  year;  corn  and  cowpeas,  second 
year;  winter  oats,  or  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas  as  a  catch  crop,  third 
year;  and  then  cotton  again.  The  seeds  are  fed  to  poultry  and  are  also 
used  as  a  food  for  man.  The  roasted  seeds  form  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

Soy  (Glycine  hispida)  is  a  native  of  Asia,  where  it  has  been  grown 
since  ancient  times  in  Japan,  Korea,  Manchuria  and  China,  especially  in 
Shansi  and  Shantung  and  in  India.  The  chief  varieties  grown  in  the 
United  States  are  Ito  San,' Mammoth,  Buckshot,  Guelph,  Eda,  Butterball, 
Kingston,  Ogemaw,  Samarow  and  many  others  which  have  lately  been 
grown. 

Description. — All  soy-beans  are  strictly  determinate  as  to  growth, 
reaching  a  definite  size,  then  mature  and  die.  The  plants  are  erect  and 


202  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

branching  from  a  short,  strong  tap  root.  The  leaves  are  trifoliate  with 
ovate  to  lanceolate  leaflets  to  nearly  orbicular  '(Fig.  87).  All  soy  plants 
are  hairy  with  two  colors  of  pubescence,  white,  or  gray  and  tawny.  The 
flowers  are  purple  and  white  borne  in  short  axillary  racemes  with  eight  to 
sixteen  flowers  in  each  cluster.  The  pods  are  compressed,  borne  in  clusters 


PIG.  87. — Soy  bean  (Glycine  hispida)  with  hairy  fruit.     (After  Abel,  Mary  H.:  Beans, 
Peas  and  other  Legumes  as  Food.     Farmers'  Bulletin  121,  1900,  p.  19.) 

of  three  to  five,  and  are  gray  or  tawny.  Gray  pods  bear  white,  or  grayish, 
hairs  and  tawny  pods  have  tawny  pubescence.  Two  or  three  seeds  occur 
in  each  pod,  which  are  readily  discharged.  The  seeds  are  uniform  in  color, 
which  run  through  a  gamut,  as  follows:  straw-yellow,  olive-yellow,  olive- 
green,  brown  and  black.  The  hilum  is  pale  in  some  varieties  and  dark 
in  others. 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OP  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^        203 

Cultivation. — Soy-beans  will  withstand  considerable  frost,  and  they 
will  succeed  on  nearly  all  types  of  soil,  but  the  best  crops  are  obtained  in 
a  mellow,  sandy  loam,  or  clay  loam.  They  make  a  satisfactory  growth 
on  poor  soils.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  soy-bean  is  similar  to 
that  for  corn.  The  land  should  be  plowed  early  and  deep,  and  then  har- 
rowed at  intervals  until  the  beans  are  planted.  Under  nearly  all  condi- 
tions, the  soy-bean  should  be  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated  sufficiently 
to  keep  down  the  weeds..  The  yield  of  seed  is  always  greater,  when  the  soy 
plant  is  grown  in  rows. 

If  the  conditions  are  favorable,  the  soy-bean  germinates  in  a  few  days 
and  cultivation  should  begin,  as  soon,  as  the  young  plantlet  appears.  One 
deep  cultivation  should  be  given,  and  after  that  the  cultivations  should  be 
shallow.  The  soy-bean  may  be  used  advantageously  in  many  systems  of 
crop  rotations.  North  of  the  Ohio  River,  a  rotation  of  corn,  soy-beans, 
wheat  and  clover  is  practised.  A  soy-bean  crop  is  often  grown  in  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee  between  two  wheat  crops,  or  between  two  oat 
crops.  It  can  also  be  used  as  a  catch  crop.  Soy-beans  are  more  generally 
grown  with  corn  than  with  any  other  crop.  The  beans  may  be  planted  in 
the  same  hills  with  corn  in  alternate  hills  with  corn  in  the  same  row, 
in  alternate  rows  of  each,  or  there  may  be  two  rows  of  each.  When  grown 
with  corn,  the  crop  is  generally  pastured,  or  made  into  ensilage.  It  is 
a  profitable  crop  when  grown  for  seed,  the  average  yield  being  about  fifteen 
bushels  in  the  northern  states  to  twenty-five  bushels  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  cotton  belt. 

As  the  protein  content  of  soy-bean  seeds  is  thirty  to  forty-six  per  cent, 
their  feeding  value  is  high  and  can  be  fed  whole  to  sheep  and  hogs,  or 
used  ground  for  stock  feeding  and  milk  production.  The  total  per  cent, 
of  digestible  nutrients  of  soy-bean  seed  is  85.9,  of  this  there  is  30.7  per 
cent,  of  protein  22.8  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates  and  14.4  per  cent,  of 
fat. 

Harvesting. — The  soy  plant,  when  cut  at  the  right  stage  of  growth, 
makes  an  excellent  hay  of  high  feeding  value  and  this  can  be  used  as  a 
home-grown  crop  to  replace  the  high-priced  concentrated  feeds  which 
the  farmer  finds  it  necessary  to  purchase.  The  plant  may  be  cut  for  hay 
any  time  from  the  setting  of  the  seed  until  the  leaves  begin  to  turn 
yellow.  The  plants  after  being  cut  should  remain  in  the  swath  until 
they  begin  to  wither  and  should  then  be  raked  into  windrows  before  the 
leaves  become  dry  and  brittle  and  left  for  a  day,  or  two,  when  they  should 


204 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


be  placed  in  small  shocks,  or  bundles.    Later,  it  should  be  stacked,  or 
housed. 

Nutritive  Value. — The  feeding  value  of  soy-bean  hay  lies  in  its  high 
content  of  digestible  protein.  In  feeding  value,  it  is  superior  to  cowpeas, 
or  red  clover,  and  is  equal  to  alfalfa  for  milk  and  butter  production.  The 
percentage  of  air  dry  digestible  nutrients  is  as  follows:  Total  53.6  per 
cent.;  protein  11.7  per  cent;  39.2  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates  and  1.2  per 
cent,  of  fat.  The  yield  of  soy-bean  hay  is  from  one  to  three  tons  to  the 


PIG.  88. — Peanut  (Arachis  hypogaea)  with  subterranean  pods.     (After  Abel,  Mary  H.: 
Beans,  Peas  and  other  Legumes  as  Food.     Farmers'  Bulletin  121,  1900,  p.  16.) 

acre.     Soy-beans  can  be  used  for  ensilage,  for  pasture  and  for  soiling 
purposes. 

Human  Food. — The  soy-bean  is  one  of  the  most  important  human 
foods  in  China  and  Japan  where  it  is  used  by  the  coolie  class  in  place  of 
meat  to  overcome  a  too  exclusive  diet  of  rice.  The  dried  beans  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  soy  sauce,  vegetable  milk  from  which  can  be  ob- 
tained cheese,  confections  and  casein.  The  oil  extracted  from  the  seeds 
may  be  used  in  the  production  of  glycerin,  enamels,  varnish,  paints, 


FORAGE   PLANTS    OF    THE   FAMILY   LEGUMINOS,E  205 

linoleums,  soap  stock,  as  a  substitute  for  butter,  lard  and  salad  oils.    The 
green  beans  can  be  canned,  or  used  as  a  green  vegetable. 

Peanut  (Arachis  hypogaea). — The  ground  nut,  or  goober,  is  an  annual 
semi-erect,  or  trailing  plant  with  stems  one  to  two  feet  long,  branching 
and  hairy.  The  leaves  are  pinnately  compound  usually  with  two  pairs 
of  subsessile  entire  leaflets  and  no  tendrils.  The  stipules  are  linear-lan- 
ceolate and  adherent  to  the  base  of  the  petiole.  The  flowers  are  axillary, 
sessile  and  orange-yellow  in  color  (Fig.  88).  Two  forms  of  flowers  occur 
on  the  same  plant.  The  larger,  more  terminal  ones  are  usually  sterile, 
while  the  axial  are  more  numerous,  smaller  and  usually  fertile.  The 
flowers  have  ten  monadelphous  stamens.  The  gynophore,  geotropic  in 
reaction,  elongates  after  flowering  and  fertilization,  and  carries  downward 
the  developing  ovary  until  it  is  buried  in  the  ground,  where  it  matures 
into  an  indehiscent  pod  with  a  reticulated  surface  (Fig.  88).  The  shell  is 
the  pericarp,  the  thin  skin  surrounding  the  seeds  is  the  testa  or  outer  seed 
coat.  The  cotyledons  are  large  and  full  of  stored  food.  If  the  ovary  is 
not  buried  underground,  it  fails  to  develop.  The  varieties  cultivated  in 
America  may  be  divided  into  the  large-podded,  or  jumbo  peanuts,  Vir- 
ginia Bunch,  Virginia  Runner,  Dixie  Giant  and  the  Spanish,  African  and 
Tennessee  Red,  which  are  small-podded.  The  main  types  may  again  be 
subdivided  into  the  bush  and  the  running  kinds. 

Seeding  and  Cultivation. — A  good  grade  of  seed  should  alone  be  used 
in  planting  peanuts  in  the  spring  after  the  soil  has  become  warm,  and 
therefore,  a  trifle  later  than  corn.  Thirty  six  inches  should  be  left  be- 
tween the  rows.  As  a  rule,  one  and  a  half  pecks  of  shelled  Virginia  pea- 
nut should  be  used  to  plant  an  acre,  or  one  and  a  quarter  bushels,  if 
planted  inclosed  in  the  shell.  On  heavy  soils,  three  fourths  to  one  inch 
and  a  quarter  will  be  sufficient  depth  to  plant  the  seeds,  while  on  light, 
sandy  soils  one  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  may  not  be  too  deep.  Culti- 
vation of  the  peanut  crop  should  begin  immediately  after  planting  and 
continue  until  the  vines  occupy  the  ground.  Frequent  shallow  cultiva- 
tion will  keep  the  soil  loose  and  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture.  After  the 
peanuts  begin  to  "peg,"  or  form  pods,  they  should  not  be  disturbed,  or 
given  cultivation.  Most  implements  used  in  cultivating  corn,  or  cotton 
will  be  found  suitable  for  the  peanut  crop.  The  crop  should  be  dug  before 
the  first  frost,  as  if  deferred  too  long,  the  first-formed  pods  are  likely  to 
burst  their  shells  and  start  growing.  Usually  the  peanuts  are  plowed 
from  the  ground  with  a  one-horse  turning  plow  and  afterward  separated 


206  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

from  the  soil  by  hand.  After  the  peanut  vines  are  loosened  from  the 
soil,  they  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  for  three,  or  four  hours, 
when  they  are  put  in  small  stacks  around  a  central  stake  to  cure.  After 
the  peanuts  have  cured  in  the  stacks  from  four  to  six  weeks,  those  intended 
for  feeding  stock  may  be  placed  in  barns.  Peanuts  for  market  should  be 
cured  in  the  stack  at  least  three,  or  four  weeks  before  picking.  They 
should  not  be  picked  from  the  vines  until  the  pods  have  become  dry  and 
the  peanuts  firm  and  nutty,  when  they  are  picked  by  hand.  Machines 
have  lately  been  used  for  picking.  After  picking,  the  peanuts  should  be 
kept  dry  and  never  exposed  to  wet  conditions,  as  the  shells  invariably 
become  discolored.  The  nuts  are  prepared  for  market  by  the  removal  of 
all  dirt  and  the  separation  of  nuts  into  their  respective  grades. 

Nutritive  Value. — The  peanut  is  a  valuable  human  food  and  is  sold  in 
large  quantities  either  roasted  in  the  shell  at  so  much  per  pound,  or  bag, 
or  shelled  and  salted  in  the  penny  slot  machine.  Peanut  candies  and  brittle 
also  consume  considerable  quantities  of  the  hulled  seeds,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  peanut  butter  and  peanut  meal  an  additional  amount.  Ameri- 
cans are  only  beginning  to  learn  what  may  be  done  with  this  valuable 
plant,  as  a  source  of  human  food.  There  has  arisen  during  recent  years  a 
demand  for  peanut  oil  for  edible  purposes,  either  as  a  dressing  for  salads 
or  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine,  or  in  the  packing  of  sardines 
Low  grade  oils  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  Peanut  hay  contains 
11.75  per  cent,  of  protein,  46.95  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates  and  1.84  per 
cent,  of  fat.  The  peanut  is  a  valuable  feed  for  use  in  preparing  hogs  for 
market.  Peanut  vines  are  used  for  feeding  stock  and  yield  a  very 
desirable  class  of  forage. 

MISCELLANEOUS  LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS 

The  activity  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  especially 
the  Bureau  of  Foreign  Seed  and  Plant  Introduction  has  resulted  in  the 
introduction,  trial  and  establishment  of  a  number  of  additional  plants  of 
the  leguminous  family.  A  detailed  account  of  these  would  enlarge  uaduly 
the  size  of  this  book,  and  hence  only  a  brief  reference  to  these  plants  will 
be  made.  Of  the  beans  belonging  to  the  genus  Phaseolus,  we  have  the 
kidney,  or  haricot  bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris)  a  native  American  plant, 
whose  use  was  learned  from  the  Indians.  Large  quantities  of  this  bean  are 
consumed  as  human  food.  The  Lima  bean  is  P.  lunatus.  It  is  likewise 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^       207 

consumed  as  a  human  food.  The  scarlet  runner  bean  (Phaseolus  vwulti- 
florus]  is  a  strong-growing  climbing  plant  used  for  decorative  purposes 
on  account  of  its  cluster  of  bright  colored  blossoms.  The  tepiary  (Pha- 
seolus acvtifoMus)  is  a  newly  recognized  bean  domesticated  by  the  pre- 
historic tribes  of  the  southwestern  United  States  and  Mexico.  Among 
the  food  plants  of  secondary  importance  in  different  parts  of  Asia  are 
five  annual  species  of  beans  that  at  various  times  have  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  but  concerning  which  very  little  definite  information 


FIG.  89. — Outline  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  regions  to  which  toothed 
bui  clover  (Medicago  denticulata)  and  spotted  bur  clover  (Medicago  arabica)  are  adopted. 
(Piper,  C.  V.  and  McKee,  R.:  Bur  Clover.  Farmers'  Bulletin  693,  1915,  p.  5.) 

has  been  published.  These  five  are  the  adsuki  bean  (Phaseolus  angularis), 
the  rice  bean  (Phaseolns  calcaratus),  the  mung  bean  (Phaseolus  aureus), 
the  urd  (Phaseolus  mungo)  and  the  moth  bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifolius) . 
The  sprouted  mung  beans  are  used  as  one  of  the  chief  constituents  of 
ordinary  chop  suey,  served  in  Chinese  restaurants  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  bur  clover  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  (Fig 
89),  namely,  the  spotted,  or  southern  bur  clover  (Medicago  arabica}  and 
the  toothed,  or  California  bur  clover  (Medicago  hispidula  denticulata}  (Fig. 
90).  These  are  used  as  cover  crops,  for  soil  renovation,  for  pasture  and 
hay.  The  horse,  broad,  or  Windsor  bean  (Viciafaba)  is  one  of  the  oldest 


208  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

cultivated  plants  in  Europe,  and  elsewhere,  but  of  minor  importance  in  the 
United  States,  used  as  human  food,  and  as  a  valuable  stock  feed  (Figs.  91 
and  92).  The  Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata)  was  introduced  from  China, 


FIG.  90. — Bur  clover  with  prickly  pods  (Medicago  denticulata) .  (After  Ball,  Carle- 
Ion,  R.:  Winter  Forage  Crops  for  the  South.  Farmers'  Bulletin  147,  1902,  p.  28;  upper 
figures  of  pods  from  Piper,  C.  V.  and  McKee,  R.:  Bur  Clover.  Farmers'  Bulletin  693, 
1915,  p.  4.) 

or  Japan  into  the  South  Atlantic  states,  where  it  is  grown  for  hay  and 
pasture.  Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  viciafolia)  was  introduced  from  Asia,  but 
is  little  grown  here.  The  serradella  (Ornithopus  sativus}  is  successful  on 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^ 


209 


thin  soils  and  makes  good  hay.     The  velvet  bean  (Mucuna  utUis)  is  one 
of  the  most  exacting  members  of  the  leguminous  family  as  regards  tem- 


FIG.  91. — Broad,  or  Windsor  bean  (Viciafaba).     (After  Abel,  Mary  H.:  Beans,  Peas 
and  other  Legumes  as  Food.     Farmers'  Bulletin  121,  1900,  p.  6.) 

perature,  and  hence,  its  growth  is  confined  to  Florida  and  the  Gulf  coast, 
where  it  is  used  as  a  green  manure  and  as  a  forage  crop  (Fig.  93).  Many 
of  the  species  of  vetch  have  been  more  or  less  extensively  cultivated,  and 


2IO  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

several  others  growing  wild  are  used  for  hay,  or  pasturage,  or  in  a  few 
cases  the  seeds  are  used  as  human  foods.     The  cultivated  kinds  include 


FIG.  92.— Flower  of  Leguminosae.     A,  floral  diagram  of  Vicia  faba;  B,  sweet  pea 
flower,  dissected,  diagrammatic.      (A,Robbins  after Eichler,  B  after  Bergen  and  Caldwell.) 


FIG.  93. — Map   of  the  southeastern  United   States,  showing  the  distribution  of 
velvet  beans.     (After  Tracy,  S.  M.  and  Coe.  H.  S.:    Farmers'  Bulletin,  962. 1918,  p.  13.) 

the  following:  common  vetch,  or  tares  (Vicia  saliva),  hairy,  sand,  or  Rus- 
sian vetch  (Vicia  villas  a),  (Fig.  94),  bitter  vetch  (Vicia  ervilia),  scarlet 
vetch  (Vicia  fulgens},  purple  vetch  (Vicia  atropurpurea),  Narbonne  vetch 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^       211 

(Vicia  narbonnensis] ,  narrow-leaved  vetch  (Vicia  angustifolia) .  Hairy 
vetch  (Vicia  villosa)  is  adapted  to  nearly  as  wide  a  range  of  uses  as  red 
clover,  and  in  regions  where  red  clover  for  any  reason  does  not  succeed,  it  is 
the  best  substitute.  It  makes  excellent  hay,  though  it  is  rather  difficult 
to  mow.  It  furnishes  pasturage  of  high  quality  and  may  be  grazed  in  the 


FIG.  94.— Hairy  vetch  (Vicia  villosa).  (After  Mairs,  T.  I.:  Some  Soiling  Crops  for 
Pennslyvania,  Bull.  109,  Pennsylvania  State  College  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
1911,  p.  II.) 

spring  without  reducing  the  hay  crop.  As  a  winter  cover  crop,  it  gives 
satisfaction,  if  sown  early,  but  it  makes  a  slower  growth  in  cold  weather 
than  common  vetch.  It  has  been  found  to  be  the  best  winter  green  man- 
ure and  cover  crop  for  tobacco  fields  in  the  Connecticut  Valley.  The 
chick-pea  (Cicer  arietinum)  is  grown  in  Europe,  Asia  and  "Mexico  for  its 


212  PASTORAL  AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

seeds,  which  are  used  for  both  stock  and  human  food.  The  herbage  is 
unfit  for  stock  because  of  a  poisonous  principle.  The  fenugreek  (Trigo- 
nella  fcenum-grcecum)  is  grown  principally  for  its  seeds,  which  have  medici- 
nal properties  and  the  plants  are  used  as  a  green  manure  for  orchards. 

Additional  Leguminous  Forage  Plants. — In  addition  to  the  above  the 
following  leguminous  forage  plants  are  noteworthy:  shaftal  (Trifolium 
suaveoleus)  berseem  (Trifolium  alexandrinum) ,  yellow  trefoil  (Medicago 
lupulina),  Dakota  vetch  (Hosackia  americana),  chickling  vetch  (Lathyrus 
sativus],  bird  vetch  (Vicia  cracca),  square  pod  pea  (Lathyrus  tetragono- 
lobus),  Florida  beggar- weed  (Desmodium  toriuosum),  bonavist,  or  hya- 
cinth bean  (Dolichos  lablab],  guar  (Cyamopsis  tetragonoloba),  kudzu 
(Pueraria  thunbergiana);  kidney  vetch  (Anthyllis  miner  aria),  sulla 
(Hedysarum  coronarium),  goat's  rue  (Galega  officinalis),  bird's  foot  trefoil 
(Lotus  corniculatus) ,  furze  (Ulex  europaus). 

MISCELLANEOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS 

There  is  a  considerable  number  of  forage  plants  other  than  the 
grasses  and  leguminous  species  used  as  food  for  cattle.  They  are  used 
incidentally,  as  occasional,  or  additional  forage  plants,  or  as  emergency 
feeds  in  the  absence,  or  scarcity,  of  the  leguminous  and  graminaceous 
species,  which  alone  are  worth  cultivating.  Some  of  these  miscellaneous 
herbs  used  as  forage  are  here  enumerated. 

Prickly  Pear  (Opuntia  spp.). — A  variety  of  the  fleshy,  spiny  cacti 
all  natives  of  the  arid  regions  of  the  west  are  used  as  forage.  The  practice 
has  been  to  burn  off  the  spines,  as  they  are  injurious  and  to  feed  the  fleshy 
joints  to  stock.  Recently  an  attempt  has  been  made  by  Burbank  and 
other  plant  breeders  to  select  and  propagate  in  field  culture  a  spineless 
cactus,  so  as  to  overcome  the  objectionable  spines  in  the  unselected  kinds. 
Prickly  pears  are  readily  eaten  by  cattle,  hogs,  sheep  and  goats. 

Australian  Saltbush  (A  triplex  semibaccata} . — This  plant  from  the 
alkali  lands  of  Australia  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States  as 
a  forage  for  sheep. 

It  has  become  naturalized  in  California,  but  in  general,  it  has  proved 
disappointing  in  this  country. 

Sachalin  (Polygonum  sackalinense). — This  tall,  rapidly  growing 
plant  was  introduced  from  the  Island  of  Saghalin  about  1893,  as  a  forage- 
plant.  It  produces  an  abundance  of  herbage,  readily  eaten  by  cattle,  but. 


FORAGE   PLANTS    OF    THE   FAMILY   LEGUMINOS^E  213 

its  rapid,  weedy  growth,  woody  stems  and  persistence  in  cultivated  fields 
renders  it  objectionable  as  a  forage  plant. 

Spurrey  (Spergula  saliva). — This  plant  was  cultivated  as  early  as  1566 
in  Europe  as  a  forage  plant.  It  has  been  used  as  a  catch  crop  and  on  the 
sandy  soils  of  Europe,  its  growth  is  rapid.  It  is  looked  upon  in  Europe 
as  a  valuable  crop,  but  has  not  been  used  generally  in  America. 

Mexican  Clover  (Richardsonia  scabra). — This  rubiaceous  annual  is 
native  to  Mexico  coming  up  in  cultivated  land  in  spring  and  forming  a 
dense  herbage  under  favorable  conditions.  It  is,  when  cured,  readily 
eaten  by  farm  animals. 

Sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus). — Sunflowers  are  grown  in  Kansas 
and  elsewhere  in  the  west  for  their  seeds,  which  form  an  important  poultry 
feed  and  for  oil  production. 

Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuber  osus). — -The  tubers  of  this  sunflower  are 
chopped  up  and  form  one  of  the  most  useful  feeds  for  hogs  during  the 
winter  months. 

Burnet  (Sanguisorba  minor). — This  deep-rooted,  European  perennial 
is  used  as  a  pasture  plant  in  England  and  France,  but  in  America,  it  has 
not  been  found  sufficiently  valuable  to  justify  cultivation. 

Rib-grass  (Plantago  lanceolata). — This  European  weed  is  common 
everywhere  in  America,  and  is  looked  upon  as  a  troublesome  plant  in 
alfalfa  and  red  clover  fields,  but  its  leaves  are  readily  eaten  by  sheep  and 
cattle,  when  cured  into  hay.  It  may  prove  useful  as  a  pasture  plant  for 
thin,  stony  soils. 

Prickly  Comfrey  (Symphytum  asperrimum). — This  perennial  herb  came 
from  the  Caucasus  region.  It'  has  been  raised  in  England  as  a  green 
forage  for  cows,  hogs  and  sheep,  but  has  not  been  used  much  in  America. 

Emergency  Feeds. — In  the  scarcity  of  the  usual  forage  plants  on  the 
western  and  stock  ranges,  it  has  been  the  practice  to  feed  native  desert 
species  in  the  chopped-up  condition  to  stock.  The  following  plants  have 
been  found  useful  in  tiding  over  the  period  of  forage  scarcity:  soap  weed 
(Yucca  elata),  bear-grass  (Yucca  glauca),  sotol  (Dasylirion  texanum,  D. 
Wheeleri),  lechuguila  (Agave  lechuguila)  and  nolina  (Nolina  erumpens 
and  N.  microcarpa).  As  feed,  they  are  of  low  value,  but  will^keep 
stock  from  starving. 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A  VIRGINIA  FARMER.  Roman  Farm  Management.  The  Treatises  of  Cato  and  Varro 
done  into  English  with  Notes  of  Modern  Instances.  New  York,  The  MacMillan 
Company,  1913. 


214  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

GARDNER,  FRANK  D.:  Successful  Farming.     Philadelphia,  John  C.  Winston  Company, 

1916. 
GRIFFITHS,  DAVID:  Prickly  Pear    as  Stock  Feed.     Farmers'  Bulletin  1072,  March, 

1920. 
HALL,  A.  D.:  The  Book  of  Rothamsted  Experiments.     New  York,  E.  P.  Dutton  and 

Company,  1905. 
HALL,  A.  D.:  A  Pilgrimage  of  British  Farming,  1910-1912.     New  York,  E.  P.  Dutton 

and  Company,  1913. 
HENRY,  W.  A.  and  MORKISON,  F.  B.:  Feeds  and  Feeding,  a  Handbook  for  the  Student 

and  Stockman.     Madison,  Wisconsin,  The  Henry-Morrison  Company,  1915. 
HUNT,  THOMAS  F.:  The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America.     New  York,  Orange, 

Judd  Company,  1912. 
KING,  F.  H.:  Farmers  of  Forty  Centuries,  China,  Korea,  Japan.     Madison,  Wisconsin, 

Mrs.  King,  1911. 
PLPER,  CHARLES  V.:  Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture.     New  York,  The  MacMillan 

Company,  1914. 
ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.     Philadelphia,  P.    Blakiston's 

Son  &  Co.,  1917. 


BULLETINS  AND  OTHER  PUBLICATIONS  ARRANGED  BY  CROPS 
ALFALFA         * 

BRAND,  CHARLES  J. :  Peruvian  Alfalfa:  A  new  Long-season  Variety  for  the  Southwest. 

•  Bulletin  118,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   1907; 

Grimm  Alfalfa  and  its  Utilization  in  the  Northwest.     Bulletin  209,  Bureau   of 

Plant  Industry,  1911;  withL.  R.  WALDRON:  Cold  Resistance  of  Alfalfa  and  some 

Factors  Influencing  It.     Bulletin  185,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1910. 

BROWN,  EDGAR:  Alfalfa  Seed.  Farmers'  Bulletin  194,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1904. 

DOYLE,  H.  W.:  Alfalfa  in  Kansas.  Report  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture  for  the 
Quarter  Ending  June,  1916. 

DRAKE,  J.  A.,  RUNDLES,  J.  C.  and  JENNINGS,  RALPH  D.:  Alfalfa  on  Corn-belt  Farms. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  1021,  U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  1919. 

FORTIER,  SAMUEL:  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa.  Farmers'  Bulletin  373,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1909;  Farmers'  Bulletin  868,  1917. 

HANSEN,  N.  E. :  The  Wrild  Alfalfas  and  Clovers  of  Siberia,  with  a  Perspective  View  of 
the  Alfalfas  of  the  World.  Bulletin  150,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1909. 

HITCHCOCK,  A.  S.:  Alfalfa  Growing.     Fanners'  Bulletin  215,  1905. 

McKEE,  ROLAND:  Nonperennial  Medicagos;  the  Agronomic  Value  and  Botanical 
Relationship  of  the  Species.  Bulletin  267,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1913. 

OAKLEY,  R.  A.  and  WESTOVER,  H.  L.:  Commercial  Varieties  of  Alfalfa.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  757,  1916. 

OLIVER,  GEORGE  W.:  Some  New  Alfalfa  Varieties  for  Pastures.  Bulletin  258,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,  1913. 


FORAGE    PLANTS    OF    THE    FAMILY    LEGUMINOS^E  215 

PIPER,  C.  V.:  Alfalfa  Seed  Production:  Pollination  Studies.  Bulletin  75,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  1914. 

SCOFIELD,  CARL  S.:  The  Botanical  History  and  Classification  of  Alfalfa.  Bulletin  131, 
Part  II,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1908. 

SMITH,  JARKD  G.;  Alfalfa  or  Lucern.     Farmers'  Bulletin'  31,  1895. 

WESTGATE,  J.  M.:  Alfalfa.  Farmers'  Bulletin  339,  1908;  Variegated  Alfalfa.  Bulletin 
169,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1910. 

WESTGATE,  J.  M.,  McKEE,  ROLAND  and  EVANS,  M.  W.:  Alfalfa  Seed  Production. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  495,  1912. 

RED  CLOVER 

BROWN,  EDGAR  and  HILLMAN,  F.  H. :  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities.  Farmers 
Bulletin  260,  1906. 

MCDERMOTT,  LAURA  FRANCES  :  An  Illustrated  Key  to  the  North  American  Species  of 
Trifolium.  San  Francisco,  Cunningham,  Curtiss,  Welch,  1910. 

SHAW,  THOMAS:  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them.  New  York,  Orange  Judd  Com- 
pany, 1906. 

SMITH,  C.  BEAMAN:  Clover  Farming  on  the  Sandy  Jack-pine  Sands  of  the  North. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  323,  1908. 

WESTGATE,  J.  M.  and  HILLMAN,  F.  H.:  Red  Clover.     Farmers'  Bulletin  455,  1911. 

WESTGATE,  J.  M.  AND  OTHERS:  Red-clover  Seed  Production:  Pollination  Studies. 
Bulletin  289,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER 

WESTGATE,  J.  M.:  Crimson  Clover.  Growing  the  Crop.  Farmers'  Bulletin  550, 
1913;  Crimson  Clover.  Utilization.  Farmers'  Bulletin  579,  1914. 

SWEET    CLOVER 

COE,  H.  S.:  Sweet  Clover.  Growing  the  Crop.  Farmers'  Bulletin  797,  1917;  Sweet 
Clover.  Utilization.  Farmers'  Bulletin  820,  1917;  Sweet  Clover-Harvesting  and 
Thrashing  the  Seed  Crop.  Farmers'  Bulletin  836,  1917. 

DRAKE,  J.  A.  and  RUNDLES,  J.  C.:  Sweet  Clover  on  Corn  Belt  Farms.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  1005,  1919. 

WESTGATE,  J.  M.  and  VINALL,  H.  N.:  Sweet  Clover.     Farmers'  Bulletin  485,  1912. 

FIELD  PEAS 

SHAW,  THOMAS:  Canadian  Field  Peas.     Farmers'  Bulletin  224,  1905. 

VINALL,  H.  N.:  The  Field  Pea  as  a  Forage  Crop.     Farmers'  Bulletin  690,  1915. 

Cow  PEAS 

NIELSEN,' H.  T.:  Cowpeas.     Farmers'  Bulletin  318,  1908. 

PIPER,  C.  V. :  Agricultural  Varieties  of  the  Cowpea  and  immediately  Related  Species. 

Bulletin  229,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1912. 
SMITH,  TARED  G.:  Cowpeas.     Farmers'  Bulletin  89,  1899. 


2l6  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

SOY-BEANS 

MORSE,  W.  J.:  Harvesting  Soy-bean  Seed.  Farmers'  Bulletin  886,  1917;  The  Soy- 
Bean:  its  Culture  and  Uses.  Farmers'  Bulletin  973,  1918. 

PIPER,  C.  V.  and  MORSE,  W.  J.:  The  Soy  Bean:  History,  Varieties  and  Field  Studies. 
Bulletin  197,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1910. 

PIPER,  C.  V.  and,  NIELSEN,  H.  T.:  Soy-Beans.    Farmers'  Bulletin  372, 1909. 

WILLIAMS,  THOMAS  A.:  Soy-Beans  as  a  Forage  Crop.  Also  LONGWORTHY,  C.  F.:  Soy- 
Beans  as  Food  for  Man.  Farmers'  Bulletin  58,  1897. 

PEANUTS 
BEATTIE,  W.  R.:  Peanuts.     Farmers'  Bulletin  356,    1909;  The  Peanut.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  431,  1911. 

ED.     Groundnuts.     Gardeners'  Chronicle,  new  ser.,  xiv,  293,  September  4,  1880. 
HANDY,  R.  B.:  Peanuts:  Culture  and  Uses.     Farmers'  Bulletin  25,  1895. 
THOMPSON,  H.  C.  and  BAILEY,  H.  S.:  Peanut  Oil.     Farmers'  Bulletin  751,  1916. 
WALDRON,  RALPH  A.:  The  Peanut,  its  History,  Histology,  Physiology  and   Utility. 

Contributions  Botanical  Laboratory,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  iv,  301-338, 

1919. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS 

ABEL,  MARY  HINMAN:  Beans,  Peas  and  other  Legumes  as  Food.     Farmers'  Bulletin 

121,  1900. 
BALL,  CARLETON  R.:  Winter  Forage  Crops  for  the  South.     Farmers'  Bulletin  147, 

1902. 
COOK,  O.  F. :  Olneya  Beans.     A  Native  Food  Product  of  the  Arizona  Desert.     Journal 

of  Heredity,  x,  321-331,  October,  1919. 
CORBETT,  L.  C.:  Beans.     Farmer's  Bulletin  289,  1907. 

PIPER,  C.  V.:  Kudzu,  Circular  89,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  io"2O. 
PIPER,  C.  V.  and  MORSE,  W.  J.:  Five  Oriental  Species  of  Beans.     Bulletin  119,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1914. 
PIPER,  C.  V.  and  McKEE,  ROLAND:  Bur  Clover.     Farmers'  Bulletin  693,  1915;  Vetches. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  515,  1912. 
McKEE,  ROLAND:  Purple  Vetch.     Farmers'  Bulletin  967,  1918;  Horse  Beans,  Farmers' 

Bulletin  969,  1918. 
McNAiR,  A.  D.  and  MERCIER,  W.  B.:  Lespedeza,  or  Japan  Clover.     Farmers'  Bulletin 

441,  1911. 
NORTON,  J.  B.  S.   AND  WALLS,  E.   P. :  The  Wild  Legumes  of  Maryland  and  their 

Utilization.     Bulletin  100,  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  97-124, 

March,  1905. 
SMITH,  A.  G.:  Vetch  Growing  in  the  South  Atlantic  States.     Farmers'  Bulletin  529, 

1913- 
TRACY,  S.  M.  and  COE,  H.  S.:  Velvet  Beans.     Farmers'  Bulletin  962,  1-918. 

MISCELLANEOUS  NON-LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS 

FORSLING,  C.  L.:  Chopped  Soapweed  as  Emergency  Feed  for  Cattle  on  Southwestern 
Ranges.  Bulletin  745,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


FORAGE  PLANTS  OF  THE  FAMILY  LEGUMINOS^       217 

GRIFFITHS,  DAVID:  The  Prickly  Pear  and  other  Cacti  as  Food  for  Stock.  Bulletin  74, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905;  The  Prickly 
Pear  as  a  Farm  Crop.  Bulletin  124,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 

KENNEDY,  P.  BEVERIDGE:  Salt  Bushes.  Farmers'  Bulletin  108,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1900. 

LAMSON-SCRIBNER,  F.:  Southern  Forage  Plants.     Farmers'  Bulletin  102,  1899. 

McKEE,  ROLAND:  Australian  Salt  Bush.  Bulletin  617,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1919. 

PIPER,  CHARLES  V. :  Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture.  New  York,  The  MacMillan 
Company,  1914. 

WOOTON,  E.  O.:  Certain  Desert  Plants  as  Emergency  Stock  Feed.  Bulletin  728,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1918. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestion  to  Teachers. — The  suggestions  that  have  been  made  for  the  provision 
of  alcoholic,  dried  and  living  material  for  the  prosecution  of  the  laboratory  work  con- 
nected with  this  chapter  holds  good.  The  teacher  should  provide  dried  plants  of  alfalfa, 
red  clover,  crimson  clover,  alsike  clover,  white  clover,  sweet  clover,  cowpeas,  soy- 
beans and  peanuts  for  a  detailed  study  by  the  class.  Fresh  peanuts  can  always  be 
had  during  the  winter  months.  If  The  institution  is  provided  with  greenhouse  facilities 
some  of  the  clovers  can  be  transplanted  to  flats  in  the  greenhouses  during  the  summer, 
while  cowpeas,  soy-beans  and  peanuts  are  easily  grown  in  pots,  especially  the  plants 
which  in  the  absence  of  a  greenhouse  can  be  grown  to  the  development  of  mature 
fruits  in  a  warm  sunny  window  of  an  ordinarily  heated  house.  Dried  specimens  of 
the  fruits  and  seeds  of  each  of  these  plants  and  of  the  rarer  kinds  should  be  kept  for 
class  demonstration.  Charts,  maps  of  distribution,  book  illustrations,  lantern  slides 
and  moving  picture  films  of  field  operations  should  be  collected  by  the  larger  and 
better  endowed  institutions.  There  can  be  no  limit  to  the  different  plants  used  in 
connection  with  the  subject  matter  of  this  chapter  in  any  part  of  the  world.  The 
abundant  plants  of  the  locality  should  be  utilized. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  and  describe  the  alfalfa  plants,  or  any  of  the  above  mentioned  plants, 
in  all  of  their  parts  and  make  floral  diagrams  and  dissections  of  the  seeds  of  these 
important  plants. 

2.  A  similar  study  should  be  made  of  the  red  clover,  crimson  clover,  white  clover, 
cowpea,  soy-bean  and  peanut,  or  any  available  leguminous  crop  plant.      All  of  them,  if 
time  permits. 

3.  Study  in  detail  the  fruits  and  seeds  of  alfalfa,  red  clover  and  peanut,  etc.     Sec- 
tions of  swollen  seeds  should  be  treated  with  iodine  solution  and  other  reagents,  as 
time  permits. 

4.  The  members  of  the  class  should  be  instructed  to  plant  unroasted  peanuts  in 
pots  at  home,  as  the  growth  of  the  plant  can  be  watched  with  great  interest  and  in- 
struction to  the  students,  who  undertake  to  do  this. 


CHAPTER  1 6 

LEGUMINOUS  ROOT  TUBERCLES  AND  THE  ACCUMULATION 
OF  NITROGEN;  NITROGEN-CONSUMING  PLANTS    •  '^  • 

Loss  of  Soil  Nitrogen. — It  is  important  before  considering  the  accumu- 
lation of  soil  nitrogen,  to  briefly  state  how  the  soil  may  lose  this  valuable 
chemical  substance.  The  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia  gas  may  be 
diffused  into  the  atmosphere,  and  there  is  no  doubt,  but  that  a  very  con- 
siderable amount  of  nitrogen  is  thus  dissipated.  The  soluble  ammonia, 
nitrites  and  nitrates  may  be  removed  from  the  superficial  layers  of  the 
soil  by  drainage  into  the  subsoil,  where  they  usually  find  their  way  by 
percolation  of  rain-water  from  above.  This  loss  by  drainage  is  greatest 
during  the  late  summer  and  autumn,  when  the  process  of  nitrification  is 
excessive.  Tnis  process  of  nitrification  in  soils  is  preceded  by  putrefac- 
tion where  the  organic  materials  of  the  soil  are  broken  down  by  bacteria 
and  fungi  into  various  end  products  among  them  ammonia,  which  is  also 
formed  by  the  fermentation  of  the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals,  according 
to  the  reaction: 

CO(NH2)2  +  2H2O  =  CO3(NH4)2 

Nc  less  than  sixty  species  of  bacteria  are  said  to  occur  in  manure  and  sew- 
age and  a  considerable  number  are  able  to  cause  the  ammoniacal  fermen- 
tation of  urine. 

Nitrification. — Now  an  entirely  different  set  cf  organisms  come  into 
play.  The  ammonia  is  converted  by  the  activity  of  several  species  of 
Nitrosococcus  and  Nitrosomonas  into  nitrous  acid,  or  the  corresponding 
nitrite.  The  next  step  in  the  process  of  nitrification  is  the  conversion  of 
nitrous  acid,  or  nitrite,  into  nitric  acid,  or  the  corresponding  nitrate. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  nitrate  bacteria  (NitrobaUer),  which  con- 
vert the  nitrous  acid  or  nitrite  into  nitric  acid,  or  nitrate. 

Here,  we  have  the  explanation  why  Indian  corn  does  not  exhaust  the 
soil,  as  rapidly,  as  some  other  crops.  The  growth  of  corn  extending  much 
further  into  the  late  summer  and  autumn,  the  plant  acts  as  a  catch  crop 
in  the  utilization  of  part  of  the  nitrates  formed  during  the  active  processes 
of  nitrification. 

218 


LEGUMINOUS  ROOT  TUBERCLES  2IQ 

In  the  third  place,  the  nitrogen  is  lost  to  the  soil  by  a  chemical  union 
with  other  soil  substances,  so  as  to  form  insoluble  compounds  which  are, 
therefore,  unavailable  to  the  growing  crops.  The  loss  may  also  be  ac- 
complished by  denitrification,  which  is  due  to  the  presence  in  the  .soil  of 
nitrate-reducing  bacteria,  which  are  active,  when  the  soil  is  wet  with 
standing  water  and  the  oxygen  supply  is  poor.  Perhaps,  the  largest 
amount  of  nitrogen  is  removed  from  the  soil  in  the  harvesting  and  sale  of 
the  crops.  These  harvested  crops  are  carried  to  our  large  centers  of 
population,  or  sent  overseas  where  they  are  lost,  as  far,  as  returning  man- 
urial  equivalents  to  the  soil  of  the  country  in  which  they  were  produced,  is 
concerned.  Crooks  estimates  that  England  alone  wastes  in  the  sewage 
and  drainage  of  her  cities,  nitrogen  to  the  value  of  $80,000,000  per  year. 
Hence  in  the  husbanding  of  our  natural  resources,  the  sewage  from  oui 
large  cities  should  be  saved.  It  is  so  saved  in  China  and  Japan,  but  the 
sewage  farms,  which  have  been  tried,  American  and  European,  have  not 
been  profitable,  hence,  the  whole  matter  of  seWage  disposal  by  sediment 
alone  and  by  the  septic  tank  is  still  open  for  exhaustive  scientific  research. 
Connected  with  this  disposal  of  sewage,  horse  and  cattle  manures  is  the 
management  of  home  and  local  markets,  where  the  produce  of  our 
farms  might  be  utilized  and  the  waste  products,  where  suitable,  might 
be  returned  to  the  soil. 

Having  briefly  outlined  the  ways  in  which  the  soil  becomes  impover 
ished,  it  is  important  clearly  to  state  how  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil  may  be 
accumulated.  One  of  the  most  important  sources  of  supply  is  barnyard 
manure,  which  contains  large  quantities  of  ammonia,  but  that  ammonia 
cannot  be  absorbed  directly  by  the  root  hairs  of  the  agricultural  plants. 
We  have  abundant  experimental  proof  that  green  plants,  except  the 
Leguminosae,  can  utilize  the  nitrogen  only  in  the  form  of  nitrates,  or  only 
to  a  very  slight  extent  in  the  form  of  ammoniates.  We  have  noticed 
how  this  process  of  nitrification  takes  place  in  two  steps  by  the  activity 
of  nitrifying  bacteria,  whose  growth  in  the  soil  is  stimulated  by  aeration, 
by  the  requisite  moisture  and  a  feeble  alkaline  condition  of  the  soil.  Once 
the  ammonia  is  converted  into  nitrates,  the  supplies  of  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  become  available  to  green  plants.  Many  plants  are  independent  of 
this  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates,  viz.,  the  Leguminosce  and 
perhaps  some. few  members  of  the  families  Betulaceae,  Eleagnaceae  and 
Podocarpaceae,  which  can  utilize  free  atmospheric  nitrogen. 


220  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Nitrogen-Storing  Plants. — We  have,  therefore,  two  classes  of  agri- 
cultural plants:  nitrogen- storing  plants  and  nitrogen- consuming  plants. 
The  nitrogen-storing  plants  are  those  which  can  utilize  the  free  atmospher- 
ic nitrogen.  These  plants,  if  the  soil  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  or  if  the  nodules 
do  not  form  on  their  roots,  become  as  ordinary  nitrogen-consuming  plants, 
i.e.,  they  require  nitrogen.  When  the  seeds  of  clover,  or  some  other  legu- 
minous species  are  planted,  soon  after  the  primary  roots  appear  with  their 
root  hairs,  the  nodule  producing  organisms  (Bacillus  (Pseudomonas} 
radicicola)  attracted  perhaps  chemotactically  to  the  fine  root  hairs,  pene- 
trate the  walls  of  these  root  hairs  and  enter  through  these  cells  into  the  mid- 
dle cortex  layers  of  the  root.  So  many  organisms  enter,  that  they  form  a 
long,  slimy  cord,  almost  hypha  like.  Here  in  the  root  cortex  cells,  the 
microorganisms  form  nests,  or  pockets,  that  become  filled  with  bacteria. 
The  presence  of  these  rod-shaped  bacteria  causes  the  formation  of  swell- 
ings, galls,  tubercles,  or  nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  leguminous  plants. 
Here  they  remain,  utilizing  the  free  atmospheric  nitrogen,  when  stimulated 
by  small  amounts  of  carbohydrates,  derived  from  the  green  host  plant 
until  about  the  time  of  flowering  of  the  host,  when  the  bacteria  begin 
to  undergo  involution  changes,  enlarging  considerably  in  size  and  assum- 
ing S-shaped,  or  Y-shaped  forms  (bacteroids).  After  this,  they  are  gradu- 
ally absorbed  by  the  green  plants  until  the  tubercle  becomes  empty — a 
mere  shell.  The  nitrogenous  material  has  been  dissolved  and  utilized  by 
the  leguminous  plant  in  the  formation  of  plant  substance,  or  in  the  form  of 
reserve  food  within  seeds  and  other  parts  of  the  green  host. 

Types  of  Leguminous  Nodules. — Although  the  organism  is  the  same  in 
all  leguminous  plants,  viz.  Bacillus  radicicola,  it  exists  in  varietal  forms, 
which  are  peculiar  to  each  of  the  important  species  of  leguminosae  being, 
therefore,  polymorphic,  although  occasional  cross  inoculations  occur  (Fig. 
95).  A  recent  study  of  a  large  number  of  genera  of  leguminous  plants  by 
Spratt  has  shown  that  there  are  four  general  types  of  tubercles:  I.  The 
Genisteae  type  in  which  the  nodule  is  primarily  spherical,  with  a  spherical 
meristern  outside  the  bacteroidal  tissue,  which  becomes  localized  at  certain 
parts,  and  thus  the  nodule  acquires  a  very  uneven  surface  and  shape.  The 
vascular  supply  forms  one  broad  zone  across  the  base  of  the  nodule,  which 
subsequently  branches  and  produces  a  varying  number  of  strands.  The 
bacteroidal  tissue  becomes  separated  into  a  number  of.  distinct  areas 
with  a  varying  amount  of  sterile  tissue  between.  Plants  with  this  type 
of  nodules  are  woody.  Many  are  shrubs,  e.g.,  Genista,  Ulex,  Amorpha; 


LEGUMINOUS  ROOT  TUBERCLES 


221 


some  are  herbs  Lupinus,  Ornithopus,  Cytisus,  Desmodium  and  Laburnum 
is  a  tree.  II.  The  Phaseoleae  and  Trifoleae  type  with  the  bacteroidal 
tissue  undivided  and  central.  The  growing  point  at  an  early  stage 
becomes  localized  apically,  consequently  they  elongate  although  re- 
maining very  narrow,  e.g.,  Trifolium,  and  frequently  the  apical  meristem 


FIG.  95. — Roots  of  soy  bean,  showing  nodules.     (After  Piper,  C.  V.:  Leguminous  Crops 
for  Green  Manuring.     Farmers'  Bulletin  278,  1907,  p.  20.) 

branches,  so  that  a  repeatedly  branched  nodule  may  result,  e.g.,  Lotus 
corniculatus.  Here  belong  nodules  of  Trifolium,  Phaseolus,  Coronitta, 
Lotus,  Ononis,  Anthyllis.  III.  In  the  Vicese  type,  the  nodules  have  the 
elongated  form  with  a  well  denned  apical  meristem  and  a  basal  intercalary 
zone,  which  produces  a  small  amount  of  tissue.  The  nodule  frequently 


222  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

branches  and  may  form  very  large  clusters,  e.g.,  Vicia  faba  and  Stizo- 
lobium,  but  there  is  one  continuous  bacteroidal  zone,  the  apical  portions 
of  which  are  traversed  by  innumerable  infection  threads.  Two  vascular 
strands  are  produced  at  a  very  early  stage  of  the  development  of  the  no- 
dule on  opposite  sides,  each  of  which  has  a  separate  attachment  to  the  root 
stele.  This  group  includes  a  number  of  plants  of  considerable  agricul- 
tural value  viz.,  Vicia,  Pisum,  Lathyrus,  Galega,  Stizololium,  and  Colulea. 
IV.  The  fourth  group  of  nodules  occur  on  plants  such  as  Robinia,  Sophora, 
Acacia,  of  west  temperate  and  subtropical  regions.  The  nodules  all 
develop  two  vascular  strands,  which  have  a  separate  attachment  to  the 
root  bundle  system  and  a  well  developed  bundle  sheath  is  present.  In 
Acacia,  the  nodule  is  bean-shaped,  in  Sophora  and  Robinia,  the  nodule 
is  transversely  indented,  the  indentations  occurring  between  two  periods 
of  growth.  This  is  the  Mimosoideae  type. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  which  is  fixed  by  Bacillus  radicicola  has  been 
thought  to  be  connected  with  the  quantity  of  slime  which  is  produced  under 
given  conditions.  If  the  formation  of  slime  is  great  in  amount  the 
bacteria  are  held  in  it  and  form  a  zoogleal  thread.  It  is  in  this  form, 
that  they  enter  the  root  hairs  and  passing  from  cell  to  cell  finally  reach 
the  root  cortex.  The  slime  is  absorbed  and  the  bacteria  live  freely  in 
the  cell,  being  transformed  into  the  so-called  bacteroids,  which  are  V  and 
Y  shaped  in  such  plants  as  Vicia  faba,  or  spherical  as  in  Lotus  corniculutus . 
These  it  is  believed  are  gradually  absorbed  by  the  plant.  Recently,  Erwin 
F.  Smith  has  called  in  question  many  of  the  accepted  theories  as  to  the 
leguminous  nodules,  and  he  cites  Gino-de-Rossi,  who  maintains  that  a 
schizomycete  of  quite  different  character  is  the  real  cause  of  the  nodules. 
We  have  given  the  usually  accepted  views  without  presenting  the  con- 
troversial points. 

Leaf  Nodules  of  Rubiaceae. — Recently  attention  has  been  called  to 
certain  rubiaceous  plants  Psychotria  bacteria  phila  and  Pavetta  Zimmerman- 
niana  and  probably  others,  which  have  small  nodules  on  their  leaves, 
which  contain  colonies  of  a  non-motile,  nitrogen-fixing  bacterium  named 
by  Faber  My  co-bacterium  rubiacearum.  These  bacteria  almost  invariably 
inhabit  the  micropyle  of  the  young  seed,  and,  when  the  latter  germinates, 
grow  through  certain  stomata  of  the  young  leaves  and  into  the  inter- 
cellular, spaces  formed  in  the  leaf- tissues  around  these  stomata.  Cavities 
are  formed  through  the  growth  of  the  epidermal  cells  which  later  close 
entirely  and  make  bacterial  nodules  which  are  deeply  imbedded  in  the 


LEGUMINOUS    ROOT   TUBERCLES  .    223 

leaf  tissues.  A  single  leaf  may  have  several  dozen  of  these  symbiotic 
bacterial  nodules.  Faber  has  shown  that  the  leaves  of  these  rubiacfeous 
plants  through  the  presence  of  the  nodules  containing  bacteria  are  able 
to  gather  nitrogen  like  the  legumes  and  store  it  in  the  small  nodules. 
As  the  value  of  the  leaves  of  these  plants  in  agricultural  operations  in  the 
tropics  has  been  recognized  in  India,  it  has  been  suggested  that  these 
nitrogen-storing  members  of  the  Rubiacea  might  be  grown  as  subsidiary 
crops  beneath  rubber,  cocoa  and  coffee  trees  and  their  leaves  allowed  to 
accumulate  on  the  ground  to  serve  as  a  mulch  and  as  a  nitrogenous 
fertilizer.  It  might  be  possible  to  prune  the  trees  and  use  the  clippings 
as  fertilizer. 

Use  as  Green  Manure.— When  the  leguminous  crop  is  mature,  or 
before  it  is  mature,  it  'may  be  plowed  under  as  green  manure.  Here 
in  the  soil  by  the  process  of  putrefaction  already  described,  the  organic 
nitrogen  of  the  plant  is  converted  into  a  form  of  nitrogen  which  through  the 
nitrifying  bacteria  is  again  converted  into  a  form  (nitrate)  available  to 
another  crop  of  green  plants.  Thus  the  nitrogen  cycle  is  completed. 
Or,  if  the  leguminous  crop  is  not  used  as  a  green  manure,  but  is  consumed, 
it  should  be  used  on  the  farm  and  not  sold  off  the  farm,  because  transformed 
by  passing  through  the  bodies  of  the  farm  animals,  it  becomes  flesh  on  the 
one  hand  and  barnyard  manure  on  the  other,  which  can  be  restored  to 
the  soil  to  help  keep  up  its  fertility. 

Rotations. — One  of  the  approved  methods  of  agricultural  practice  is 
to  grow  leguminous  crops  for  home  consumption,  and  the  non-leguminous, 
nitrogen-consuming  crops  for  sale.  One  practical  farmer  grows  mixed 
crops  of  leguminous  plants,  liberally  fertilized  with  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid.  He  converts  the  first  year's  crop  into  silage,  which  he  feeds  to 
his  cattle,  returning  the  manure  to  his  soil.  He  converts  the  second 
year's  produce  into  hay.  The  land  thus  produces  highly  nitrogenous 
crops  without  purchasing  outside  supplies  of  expensive  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizers, and  is  left  in  a  high  state  of  fertility  for  potatos  or  cereal  crops 
which  respond  to  rich  supplies  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

Encouragement  of  Leguminous  Crops. — Having  ascertained  these 
facts,  the  question  naturally  arises,  How  can  the  growth  of  leguminous 
plants  be  encouraged?  It  has  been  discovered  that  leguminous  crops 
require  considerable  supplies  of  potash  and  phosphatic  fertilizers.  Potash 
has  considerable  to  do  with  the  metabolism  concerned  in  the  formation  of 
carbohydrates,  and  phosphorus  compounds  have  to  do  with  the  nitrogen- 


224  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

ous  metabolism.  This  fact  was  impressed  upon  the  writer  on  a  visit  to 
the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Farm  in  England  in  1892.  Experiments  at 
Rothamsted  have  demonstrated  that  whenever  nitrogenous  fertilizers 
were  supplied  to  the  plots  of  herbage,  the  grasses  increased  in  number  and 
abundance.  Whenever  potash  replaced  the  nitrogen,  the  leguminous 
plants  began  to  invade  the  experimental  plats.  The  student  having 
followed  the  above  discussion  may  ask  the  question,  if  it  is  not  possible 
to  introduce  the  proper  organism,  namely,  Bacillus  radicicola  to  the  soil 
in  order  to  render  more  certain  the  inoculation  of  the  leguminous  plants 
grown  either  for  forage,  for  human  food,  or  for  green  manure,  as  the 
leguminous  plants  through  the  activity  of  the  nodule-forming  bacteria 
are  supplied  with  a  source  of  nitrogen  not  available  to  most  other  plants? 

Microbe-Seeding. — Where  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  are  lacking  in  a 
soil,  it  is  possible  to  introduce  them  artificially  either  by  transferring  soil 
from  an  old  field,  where  the  desired  leguminous  crop  has  been  grown  suc- 
cessfully, or  by  the  use  of  pure  cultures  of  the  proper  organism.  The 
method  of  transferring  soil  is  inconvenient  and  expensive,  and  the  use  of 
the  preparation  nitragin  has  not  been  a  success.  The  organisms  grown 
upon  nitrogen-free  media  have  been  found  beneficial,  if  added  directly 
to  the  soil,  although  negative  results  are  obtained,  if  the  soil  already  con- 
tains the  proper  bacteria,  or  if  the  soil  is  acid,  needs  fertilizers,  such  as 
potash,  phosphoric  acid,  or  lime,  and  is  so  rich  in  nitrogen  as  to  prevent 
the  development  of  the  nitrogen-fixing  organism. 

Nitrogen-consuming  Plants. — The  point  of  interest  to  remember  is 
that  the  preceding  leguminous,  nitrogen-storing  crop  prepares  the  soil, 
if  used  as  a  green  manure,  for  the  succeeding  nitrogen-consuming  crops, 
which  need  their  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  Agriculturally  speak- 
ing there  are  eight  groups  of  nitrogen-consuming  plants  which  may  be 
distinguished:  the  root,  bulb,  stem,  leaf,  flower,  fruit,  seed,  and  cereal  crops. 
All  of  these  crops  need  nitrogenous  substance  for  their  best  development, 
because  sugar,  starch  and  other  carbohydrate  reserve  materials  are  only 
stored  in  the  plant  when  nitrogen  is  present  in  efficient  supplies.  The 
proper  storage  of  the  various  carbohydrates  can  take  place  only  when  the 
storage  cells  are  supplied  with  the  requisite  amounts  of  nitrogen  and 
potash.  If  the  plant  is  nitrogen  hungry,  such  carbohydrate  reserve 
supplies  are  not  formed.  As  a  large  number  of  plants  used  by  man  and 
grown  in  various  parts  of  America  in  horticultural  and  agricultural  opera- 
tions have  been  omitted  purposely  in  order  to  keep  this  book  within 


NITROGEN-CONSUMING   PLANTS  225 

bounds,  an  enumeration  of  these  nitrogen-consuming  plants  will  be  made 
here. 


ROOT  CROPS 

The  root  crops  are  those  which  represent  the  underground  root,  or 
stem  of  the  plant  which  is  cultivated.  Enumerated  the  plants  are: 

Potato  (Solatium  tuber  osum),  a  native  of  America  and  cultivated  for 
its  enlarged,  starch-filled  tubers. 

Sweet  Potato  (Ipomoea  batatas)  originally  from  the  West  Indies  and 
Central  America.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  fleshy  roots  filled  with  starch. 

Radish  (Raphanus  sativus]  is  a  native  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
old  world  and  is  raised  for  its  fleshy  tap  root. 

Horse-radish  (Radicula  armor acia). — This  plant  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  has  a  white,  fleshy,  cylindrical  root,  which  is  grated  and  used  as  a 
condiment. 

Turnip  (Brassica  napus}. — The  turnip  is  a  biennial  plant  producing 
an  edible,  fleshy  tap  root.  It  is  a  native  probably  of  Europe,  or  Western 
Asia. 

Rutabaga,  or  Swede  Turnip  (Brassica  campestris}. — The  fleshy  edible 
root  has  a  short  stem,  or  neck,  at  its  upper  part  which  distinguishes  it 
from  the  turnip.  It  is  used  as  food  for  stock  and  occasionally  as  food  for 
man. 

Beet  (Beta  vulgaris). — This  is  a  complex  species  separated  into 
several  well-marked  groups,  as  the  sugar  beet,  mangel- wurzels  and  com- 
mon garden  beet.  The  wild  beet  occurs  along  the  coasts  of  southern 
Europe  as  a  perennial  sea  beet  (Beta  maritima}  with  a  tough,  slender  root. 

Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuber  OSM}. — The  thick,  fleshy  root- 
stocks  with  oblong  tubers  are  the  parts  used  as  food.  This  native 
American  plant  is  also  called  earth  apple,  Canada  potato,  girasole  and 
topinambour. 

Carrot  (Daut^us  carota).— The  conical  root  of  the  carrot  is  an  important 
food.  The  carrot  is  a  biennial  plant  native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

Parsnip  (Pastinaca  sativa). — The  fleshy  root  of  the  cultivated  pknt 
has  been  developed  from  a  thin,  tough,  woody  root  and  hypocotyl.  It  is 
a  native  of  Europe. 

Celeriac  (Apium  graveolens). — This  vegetable  is  the  turnip-like  root 
of  the  celery  plant,  originally  a  wild  plant  of  Europe. 

15 


226  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

Salsify  (Tragopogon  porrifolius). — This  plant  is  grown  for  its  fleshy 
roots  which  have  an  oyster  flavor. 

Chorogi  (Stachys  Sieboldii).-—The  Chinese,  or  Japanese  artichoke  is 
a  mint-like  plant  with  crisp  tubers  eaten  raw,  or  cooked. 

Ulluco  (Ullucus  tuber  osus). — This  plant  is  a  native  of  Peru,  where 
it  is  cultivated  for  its  tubers. 

Chufa  (Cyperus  esculentus). — The  edible  tubers  of  this  sedge  are  much 
prized  in  the  south,  where  it  is  often  cultivated.  The  raw,  or  baked 
chufas  have  an  agreeable  nutty  flavor. 

Ginger  (Zingiber  officinale). — The  rhizomes  of  this  tropical  plant 
are  cultivated. 

Taro,  or  Dasheen  (Colocasia  antiquorum  var.  esculenta). — This  is  the 
elephant's  ear  of  our  gardens.  It  has  been  grown  as  taro  from  time  im- 
memorial by  the  South  Sea  Islanders,  as  one  of  their  important  food 
plants.  It  has  been  lately  grown  in  the  United  States  for  its  large  starchy 
corms  and  its  leaves  under  the  name  of  dasheen. 

Eddo,  Tannia,  Yautia,  Cocoe  (Xanthosoma  atrovfrens) .— The  under- 
ground tubers  are  edible. 

Cassava  (Manihot  utilissima}. — This  plant  is  also  called  bitter  cassava, 
mandioca,  manioc,  tapioca  plant.  It  is  the  chief  food  of  the  tropical 
Indian  tribes  of  South  America,  where  maize  is  not  grown.  Cassava  is 
cultivated  for  its  starchy  roots  in  many  parts  of  the  tropics,  since  it  is  a 
crop  which  yields  large  return  for  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  labor. 

Yam  (Dioscorea  alata  and  D.  batatas). — The  yam  is  much  cultivated 
in  countries  with  a  warm  climate  for  its  large,  mealy,  or  starchy  roots, 
which  are  used  much  like  sweet  potatoes. 

Arracacha  (Arracacha  esculenta). — This  is  a  plant  allied  to  the  parsnip 
and  carrot  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  Andes.  It  has  become 
naturalized  in  Jamaica. 

BULB  CROPS 

Chia -pen-no  (Lilium  tigrinum). — The  bulbs  of  this  lily  with  a  pars- 
nip flavor  are  eaten  in  China. 

Onion  (Allium  cepa). — The  cultivation  of  the  onion  dates  back  to  the 
earliest  times  in  the  history  of  China,  Egypt  and  India.  Its  bulbs  are 
large  and  show  many  varietal  differences  due  to  manner  of  propagation, 
quality,  shape,  color,  size  and  time  of  maturity  (Fig.  96). 

Garlic  (Allium  satiwm). — This  plant  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe. 


NITROGEN-CONSUMING    PLANTS 


227 


Leek  (A  Ilium  porrum). — A  robust  biennial  plant  with  small  bulbs, 
native  of  the  Mediterranean  region. 

Chives  (A  Ilium  schcenoprasum). — A  hardy  perennial  plant  bearing 
small,  narrowly  ovoid,  clustered  bulbs  with  membranous  coats.  It  is 
a  native  of  Europe,  Asia  and  North 
America. 

Shallot  (Allium  ascalonicum) . — The 
bulbs  are  borne  in  clusters,  but  un4ike 
garlic  are  not  surrounded  by  a  thin 
membrane. 

Welsh  Onion,  or  Ciboule  (Allium 
fistula  sum). — This  is  an  annual,  or 
biennial  plant  with  long  fibrous  roots 
without  bulbs,  but  the  base  of  the  plant 
is  swollen.  It  grows  wild  in  the  Altai 
mountains  and  aboujt  Lake  Baikal  in 
Siberia. 

STEM  CROPS 

Asparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis). — 
The  stems  of  this  liliaceous  plant  are 
annual  arising  from  fleshy,  perennial 
roots  and  rootstocks.  The  young 
shoots  are  used  as  a  vegetable. 
Asparagus  is  wild  in  Asia  and  Europe 
(Fig.  97)- 

Sugar  Cane  (Saccharum  officinarum) . 
The  stems  of  this  perennial  grass  are 
one  of  the  chief  sources  of  commercial 
sugar.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  tropics. 

Bamboo  (Bambusa  arundinacea,  B.  vulgaris]  and  (Arundinaria  nitida). 
The  shoots  of  the  bamboo  are  eaten  in  China  in  the  fresh,  dried  and 
salted  condition.  They  are  also  canned  for  the  export  trade. 

Kohl-rabi  (Brassica  oleracea  var.  caulo-rapa). — The  enlarged  basal  part 
of  the  cabbage  stem  is  eaten  as  a  vegetable  under  the  above  name. 

Udo  (Aralia  cordata). — The  blanched  stems  of  thisplant  introduced  into 
the  United  States  in  1903  from  Japan  by  Lathrop  and  Fairchild  are  used 
as  a  vegetable. 


FIG.  96. — Median  lengthwise  section 
of  common  onion  bulb.     (Robbins.) 


228 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Flax  (Linum  usitatissimum). — The  bast  fibers  in  the  stem  of  the 
flax  are  used  for  the  making  of  linen  fiber. 

Hemp  (Cannabis  sativa). — This  plant  is  cultivated  in  Europe,  Asia 
and  the  United  States  for  the  valuable  bast  fibers  of  its  stem,  which  are 
made  into  cordage. 

Jute  (Cor chorus  capsularis  and  C.  olilorius). — This  plant  is  grown  in 
Asia  for  the  fibers  obtained  from  its  stem  by  retting. 

Ramie  (Boehmeria  nivea). — The  fibers  of  the  stem  are  usually  obtained 
in  China  by  a  slow  and  expensive  extraction  by  hand. 


FIG.  97. — Garden  asparagus   (Asparagus  officinalis).     A,   young   shoot   or   "spear"; 
B,  thick,  fibrous  roots  and  young  shoots  arising  from  "crown."     (Robbins.) 

Rubber  (Hevea  brasiliensis). — This  the  Para  rubber  tree  is  cultivated 
in  some  tropical  countries  for  its  latex,  or  milky  juice,  which  is  converted 
into  rubber. 

Castilloa  elastica. — A  tree  of  Central  America  yields  Panama  rubber 
and  the  guayule  (Parthenium  argentatum)  is  a  desert  shrub  of  Mexico 
from  which  rubber  has  been  extracted.  The  Assam  rubber  is  obtained 
from  a  tropical  fig  (Ficus  elastica)  much  cultivated  indoors  in  temperate 
climates  for  its  foliage. 

Cinchona  (Cinchona  calisaya). — The  bark  of  this  tree  yields  quinine. 


NITROGEN-CONSUMING  PLANTS  229 

LEAF  CROPS 

Cabbage  (Brassica  oleracea  var.  capitata). — The  leaves  of  the  wild 
plant  from  the  seashore  of  southwestern  Europe  are  enlarged  and  massed 
together  to  form  a  head. 

Kale  and  Collard  (Brassica  oleracea  var.  viridis). — Collards  are 
much  grown  in  the  south  particularly  Georgia.  The  stem  is  branched 
and  leafy  with  broad  leaves. 

Brussels  Sprouts  (Brassica  oleracea  var.  gemmiferd). — The  axillary 
buds  of  this  variety  of  cabbage  plant  have  increased  in  number  along  the 
stem  and  form  small  rounded  heads,  or  "sprouts." 

Peh-ts'ai  (Brassica  chinensis}. — The  Chinese  cabbage  attains  its 
perfection  in  the  colder  parts  of  China.  It  has.  recently  been  introduced 
into  cultivation  in  the  United  States. 

Lettuce  (Lactuca  sativa). — There  are  several  varieties  of  lettuce, 
which  are  cultivated  for  their  leaves,  which  are  used  for  salad.  The 
cos  lettuce  and  head  lettuce  are  the  most  common. 

Endive  (Cichorium  endivia). — The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  used  as 
greens,  as  also  those  of  the  closely  related  succory  (C,  intybus}. 

Celery  (Apium  graveolens). — The  blanched,  basal  sheath  of  the  leaves 
and  the  petioles  represent  the  market  celery.  The  plant  was  originally 
cultivated  in  Europe. 

Parsley  (Apium  petroselinum).—The  leaves,  which  are  gathered  for 
use  as  a  pot  herb,  are  plain,  or  curled. 

Rhubarb  (Rheum  rhaponticum) . — The  use  of  the  succulent  leaf  stalks 
for  stewing  and  for  tarts  is  widespread. 

Dasheen  (see  under  root  crops). 

Spinach  (Spinacia  oleracea}. — The  leaves  of  this  are  much  in  demand 
for  greens.  It  is  a  native  of  southwestern  Asia  and  in  China  is  called 
po-ts'ai. 

New  Zealand  Spinach  (Tetragonia  expansa). — The  tender  leaves  and 
tips  of  the  stem  are  used  for  greens. 

Tea  (Camellia  Thea). — The  young  leaves  of  this  shrub  are  gathered 
and  dried  for  export  from  the  various  warm  temperate  countries  where  tea 
is  grown  as  a  commercial  crop.  The  industry  is  an  enormous  one  in  China. 

Mate  (Ilex  paraguayensis). — The  leaves  of  this  shrub  are  used  as  a 
popular  beverage  in  several  South  American  countries. 


230  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Coca  (Erythroxylon  coca). — The  leaves  of  this  South  American  shrub 
are  universally  chewed  by  the  Indian  men  and  women,  because  they  have 
stimulating  effect  and  prevent  tissue  waste. 

Tobacco  (Nicotiana  tabacum). — The  large  leaves  of  this  American 
plant  are  cured  and  made  into  cigars,  cigarettes,  chewing  and  smoking 
tobacco. 

Manila  Hemp  (Musa  textih's). — The  leaf  fibers  of  this  species  of  banana 
are  made  into  Manila  hemp  one  of  the  chief  exports  from  the  Philippine 
islands. 

Pita  (Agave  americana). — The  maguey  grows  on  the  plateaus  of  Mexi- 
co, and  its  leaves  yield  the  valuable  Pita  fiber. 

Sisal  (Agave  sisalana  and  Agave  rigida  var.  sisalana}. — The  sisal  fiber 
is  exported  in  large  quantities  from  Yucatan  in  Mexico. 

New  Zealand  Flax  (Phormium  tenax). — The  plant  which  yields  this 
fiber  grows  wild  in  New  Zealand  and  neighboring  islands  where  it  was  used 
by  the  native  Maoris. 

Bowstring  Hemp  (Sansemeria  cylindrica).- — -The  natives  of  South 
Africa,  where  this  plant  grows,  make  their  bowstrings  from  the  leaf  fibers. 

Medicinal  Leaves.- — The  following  are  some  of  the  important  medicinal 
leaves:  rosmary,  thyme,  eucalyptus,  senna,  coca,  belladonna,  digitalis, 
buchu,  and  aconite. 

FLOWER  CROPS 

Cauliflower,  Broccoli  (Brassica  oleracea  var.  botrytis). — These  are 
types  of  cabbage  plant  in  which  there  is  a  large  head  composed  of  abortive 
flowers  upon  very  much  modified",  thickened  flower  stems  (Fig.  98). 

Artichoke  (Cynara  scolymus). — The  fleshy  involucral  bracts  and  the 
fleshy  receptacle  of  the  heads  of  this  compositous  plant  are  used  as  a 
vegetable. 

Yeh-peh-ho  (Lilium  Sargentia). — The  flowers  of  this  lily  are  eaten 
in  China  after  being  boiled,  diied  in  the  sun,  minced,  fried  with  salt  and  oil 
eaten  in  the  same  way  as  preserved  cabbage. 

Huang-hua-ts'ai  (Hemerocallis  flava.)—The  flowers  of  the  yellow  day 
lily  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese. 

Flowers  for  Perfume. — In  the  provinces  of  southern  France  as  at 
Grasse,  flowers  are  raised  commercially  for  the  manufacture  of  the  various 
extracts  and  perfumes  in  universal  demand  by  civilized  men.  The  flowers 
of  roses,  violets,  jasmine  and  orange  are  so  used. 


NITROGEN-CONSUMING    PLANTS 


23I 


Insect  Powders. — Insect  powder  is  made  from  the  finely  ground  flower 
heads  of  Chrysanthemum  pyrethrum.  Dalmatian  insect  powder  comes 
from  Chrysanthemum  ^inerariafolium  and  Persian  from  C.  roseum. 


PIG.  98. — Cauliflower  (Brassica  oleracea  botrytis).     A,  entire  plant;  B,  portion  of  "head. 

(Robbins.) 


FRUIT  CROPS 
Temperate  Lands 

Apple  (Pyrus  malus). — The  apple  is  cultivated  extensively  in  a  great 
many  varieties  in  America,  Asia  and  Europe. 

Pear  (Pyrus  communis}.- — The  common  pear  is  probably  a  native  of 
southern  Europe  and  Asia  with  a  fruit  usually  tapering  to  the  base  and  a 
flesh  with  grit  cells. 


232  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Quince  (Cydonia  oblonga). — The  quince  tree  produces  a  fruit  hairy 
when  young,  becoming  smoother  with  age.  The  skin  is  yellow  at  matu- 
rity and  the  seeds  are  surrounded  by  a  mucilaginous  covering. 

Plum  (Prunus}. — This  genus  includes  a  number  of  species  of  trees 
which  yield  a  plum-like  fruit. 

Sweet  Cherry  (Prunus  amum).—The  sweet  cherry  is  produced  on  a 
tall  European  tree,  which  has  been  cultivated  in  America  for  many  years. 

Sour  Cherry  (Prunus  cerasus). — The  tree  which  produces  the  sour 
cherry  is  smaller  than  the  sweet  cherry  tree,  but  like  it  it  is  a  native  of 
Europe. 

Apricot  (Prunus  armeniaca). — This  species  is  considered  to  be  a  native 
of  southern  Asia. 

Peach  (Prunus  persica). — The  peach  tree  is  probably  a  native  of 
China  and  was  long  ago  introduced  into  Europe  and  later  America  through 
central  Asia. 

Almond  (Prunus  amygdalus). — The  almond  is  cultivated  for  its  kernel 
with  seed,  therefore  the  outer  fruit  coats  are  fibrous  and  not  fleshy  as  in 
the  peach  with  which  the  almond  is  closely  related. 

Olive  (Olea  euro  peso). — The  olive  tree  with  evergreen,  grayish-green 
foliage  is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  where  it  has  been  culti- 
vated since  ancient  times. 

Ash  Pumpkin  (Benincasa  cerifera). — A  large,  handsome,  oval-shaped 
gourd  grown  throughout  China  and  Japan. 

Water-melon  (Citrullus  vulgaris}. — This  fruit  because  of  its  refrigerant 
pulp  is  deservedly  popular  in  late  summer. 

Melon  (Cucumis  melo). 

Native  Cucumber  (Cucumis  satitnis}. — The  fruit  is  usually  peeled, 
sliced  and  served  in  vinegar. 

Pumpkin  (CucurUta  pepo). — The  fruit  of  this  annual  species  has  a 
ribbed  usually  reddish-orange  rind. 

Squash  (Cucurbitia  maxima). — There  are  several  kinds  of  squashes, 
such  as  the  turban,  Hubbard,  Marblehead  and  marrow  squashes. 

Cantaloupe  (Cucumis  melo}. — The  true  cantaloupes  are  usually  deep- 
ribbed,  hard-rinded  and  warty,  or  scaly. 

Tomato  (Lycopersicum  esculentum). — The  fruit  of  this  short-lived 
perennial  of  the  family  Solanacea  used  to  be  considered  poisonous  and  was 
known  then  as  love-apple.  It  is  now  one  of  our  most  important  fruit 
vegetables. 


NITROGEN-CONSUMING    PLANTS  233 

Egg  Plant  (Solarium  melongena). — The  fruit  is  a  large,  purple-skinned, 
pear-shaped  one  used  in  the  baked  form  or  sliced  and  fried  either  with 
or  without  bread-crubs. 

Pepper  (Capsicum  annuum). — The  fruit  is  red  or  green  color  and  exists 
in  a  number  of  varieties  prized  for  their  pungency. 

Fig  (Ficus  carica). — The  fig  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  the  southern 
and  southwestern  United  States  and  Mexico,  where  its  fresh  fruit  may  be 
obtained.  The  cured  and  pressed  figs  are  found  on  the  fruit  stands  of  all 
large  American  cities. 

Mulberry  (Morus  alba,M.  nigra,  M.  rubra). — These  trees  are  sometimes 
cultivated  for  their  multiple  juicy  fruits. 

Date  (Phoenix  dactylifera). — The  finer  varieties  of  date  from  the  desert 
regions  of  North  Africa  have  been  introduced  recently  into  the  United 
States,  where  their  cultivation  in  Arizona  and  southern  California  has 
become  an  established  fact. 

Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana  and  D.  kakl}. — The  finer  culti- 
vated persimmons  came  to  us  from  Japan,  where  the  fruit  is  much  relished. 

Currant  (Ribes  rubrum). — This  species  includes  all  of  the  red  and 
white  fruited  currants.  The  black  currant  of  Europe  is  R.  nigrum,  the 
wild  black  currant  of  America  is  R.  americanum  and  the  flowering  currant 
R.  aureum. 

Gooseberry  (Ribes  grossularia  and  Ribes  oxyacantha). — The  first 
named  gooseberry  is  European  with  a  rough  hairy  or  prickly  fruit,  the 
second  species  is  American  with  a  smooth  fruit. 

Blackberry  (Rubus  nigrobaccus). — The  tall  stems  of  this  plant  are 
armed  with  strong,  hooked  prickles.  The  plant  grows  in  the  eastern 
United  States  and  has  sweet,  aromatic  fruit. 

Dewberry  (Rubus  trivialis  and  R.  villosus'). — The  first  species  is  south- 
ern and  the  last  grows  in  the  north.  Both  have  been  introduced  into 
cultivation. 

Raspberry  (Rubus  occidentalis  and  R.  strigosus}. — The  first  mentioned 
species  is  the  black  raspberry  and  the  second  the  red  raspberry.  Both 
are  native  of  America. 

Strawberry  (Fragaria}. — Three  species  must  be  considered  as  the 
cultivated  ones.  The  early  settlers  in  the  eastern  United  States  culti- 
vated the  wild  strawberry  (Fragaria  virginiana}.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  grow  the  European  strawberry  (Fragaria  vesca),  but  it  has  been 
limited.  Most  of  our  cultivated  strawberries  belong  to  the  species, 
F.  chiloensis  (Fig.  99). 


234 


PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 


Grape  (Vitis). — The  old-world  grape  is  Vitis  vinifera.  The  muscadine 
grapes,  or  southern  fox  grapes  are  Vitis  rotundifolia,  one  of  the  chief 
varieties  of  which  is  the  Scuppernong.  The  northern  fox  grape  (V. 
labrusca)  has  given  us  the  Concord,  one  of  the  best  grapes  grown. 

Okra  (Hibiscus  esculentus) . — The  capsule  of  this  plant  is  rich  in  muci- 
lage, hence,  the  fruit  is  a  favorite  one  to  thicken  soup. 


— cortex  of 
receptacle 


medulla  of 
receptacle 


PIG.  99. — Strawberry  (Fragaria  chiloensis).     A,  "fruit"  in  median  length-wise  section 
X2^;  B,  single  achene,   X2O.      (Robbins.) 

Blueberry  (V actinium  corymbosum). — Since  the  discovery  that  this 
swamp  shrub  can  be  grown  in  an  acid  peat,  hopes  have  been  raised  that 
superior  table  fruits  may  be  derived  from  the  large,  sweet,  wild  fruit. 

Cranberry  (V actinium  macrocarpori). — The  trailing  plant,  which  yields 
the  cranberry,  so  much  used  in  the  making  of  a  jelly-like  sauce,  is  grown 
extensively  on  Cape  Cod,  in  New  Jersey  and  in  Michigan. 


NITROGEN-CONSUMING    PLANTS  235 

Tropical  Fruits 

Citron  (Citrus  medico). — The  commercial  citron  is  the  dried  fruit  of 
this  species.  It  is  also  candied. 

Lemon  (Citrus  limonia). — The  lemon  tree  is  a  native  of  India  and  its 
fruits  yield  a  sour  juice  used  in  the  making  of  lemonade. 

Lime  (Citrus  aurant  if  olio) . — The  small  greenish  fruits  are  borne  on  a 
small  straggling  tree. 

Sweet  Orange  (Citrus  sinensis). — The  concensus  of  opinion  as  to  the 
home  of  the  wild  orange  is  southeastern  China. 

King  Orange  (Citrus  nobilis). — The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  rarely  seen  in 
the  city  fruiterers.  A  variety  is  known  as  the  mandarin  orange. 

Grapefruit,  Shaddock,  Pomelo  (Citrus  grandis}. — The  large  yellow 
fruits  of  this  species  have  become  an  almost  indispensable  fruit  for  the 
breakfast  table. 

Sour  Orange  (Citrus  aurantium). — This  species  is  now  much  used  for 
budding  and  grafting  the  better  varieties  of  citrus  plants  upon.  - 

Pineapple  (Ananas  sativus). — The  multiple,  juicy  fruit  of  this  plant 
is  borne  in  the  center  of  a  rosette  of  spiny,  rigid,  leathery  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  eaten  fresh,  or  canned. 

Custard-apple  (Annona  squamosa).  The  tree  which  produces  this 
fruit  with  a  white  granular,  sweet  custard-like  pulp  is  a  native  of  Asia 
and  tropical  America. 

Bread-fruit  (Artocarpus  incisa). — The  fruit  is  large  and  is  roasted  in  the 
tropics  as  a  vegetable.  The  leaves  of  the  tree  are  glossy  and  pinnately 
incised. 

Papaw  (Carica  papaya). — The  hollow  fruit  of  this  plant  with  yellowish 
pulp  has  digestive  properties  and  is  used  to  assist  digestion  in  the  tropics. 
Durian  (Durio  zibethinus). — The  tuberculate  fruit  of  this  tree  is  relished 
by  some,  as  resembling  blanc-mange,  delicious  as  the  finest  cream.  The 
bad  odor  of  this  fruit  causes  some  people  to  avoid  eating  it.  The  name 
civet-cat  fruit  is  suggestive  of  its  smell. 

Mango  (Mangifera  indica). — The  delicious  fruit  of  this  tree  has  been 
likened  to  a  piece  of  cotton  soaked  with  turpentine,  as  the  flat  seeds  are 
usually  covered  with  a  dense  hairy  covering.  Improved  kinds  are  grown. 

Plantain,  or  Banana,  (Musa  sapientum). — This  is  one  of  the  principal 
tropical  fruits  cultivated  in  extensive  plantations  and  shipped  to  northern 
ports.  The  trade  is  enormous. 


236  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

Alligator  Pear  (Per sea  gratissima). — The  tree,  which  yields  a  smooth 
skinned  fruit,  is  cultivated  in  Florida  and  elsewhere  in  the  tropics. 

CEREAL  CROPS 

This  group  includes  the  caryopses  of  maize,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
rice,  wild  rice,  and  others  previously  described  in  detail,  and  in  addition  the 
following,  which  were  not  described,  because  of  the  want  of  space  for  a 
proper  presentation  of  their  botany  and  usefulness:  the  sorghums  (Andro- 
pogon  sorghum)  include  the  cereals  sorgo,  kafir,  milo,  broom  corn,  shallou, 
kowliang,  duYra  and  the  millets:  pearl  millet  (Pennisetum  glaucum), 
proso,  hog,  or  broom-corn  millet  (Panicum  miliaceum),  the  foxtail  millet 
(Chaetochloa  italica},  the  barnyard  millet  (Echinochloa  crus-gatti}  and  the 
Japanese  barnyard  millet  (Echinochloa  frumentacea) .  The  foxtail  millet 
(Chaetochloa  italica}  includes  the  types  Hungarian,  Aino,  German,  Siberian, 
Golden  Wonder  and  common  millets.  The  bibliography  given  later  will 
enable  the  student  to  become  acquainted  with  them.  See  following  bibliog- 
raphy under  "additional  cereal  and  grain  crops." 

SEED  CROPS 

Cotton  (Gossypium  barbadense  and  G.  herbaceum}.— These  two  species 
are  literally  cultivated  for  their  seeds  for  after  the  removal  of  the  twisted 
hairs  from  the  surface  of  the  seed  coats,  the  seeds  are  ground  and  yield 
a  table  oil  and  a  cake  used  as  a  cattle  feed. 

Coffee  (Cojfea  arabica}. — The  seeds  are  taken  from  the  fruit,  decorti- 
cated and  roasted  before  being  used  to  make  one  of  the  favorite  beverages 
of  civilized  man. 

Cocoa.  (Theobroma  cacao). — The  seeds  of  this  tree  are  found  in  large, 
ribbed  capsules.  They  are  removed,  dried  and  are  ground  for  use  in  mak- 
ing chocolate  by  the  addition  of  sugar. 

Coconut  (Cocos  nucifera}. — The  fruit  of  this  palm  is  a  drupe  with  a 
large,  fibrous  covering  inclosing  the  so  called  nftt,  the  shell  of  which  (the 
endocarp  of  the  fruit)  has  3  germ  pores.  The  shell  incloses  the  large  seed, 
the  endosperm  of  which  inclosing  the  embryo,  contains  an  abundance  of 
oil.  The  direct  endosperm  is  exported  as  copra  and  from  copra  is  ex- 
tracted the  oil  used  in  the  making  of  soap. 

Flax  ((Linum  usitatissimum}. — From  the  seeds  of  the  flax  is  obtained 
by  expression,  linseed  oil. 


NITROGEN-GCONSUMIN   PLANTS  237 

Castor  Oil  ((Ricinus  communis). — The  medicinal  castor  oil  obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  this  plant  has  strong  laxative  properties.  There  was  a 
great  demand  during  the  late  world  war  for  castor  oil  as  a  lubricant  for 
aeroplanes. 

Quinoa  (Chenopodium  quinoa). — The  small,  round,  white  seeds  of  this 
South  American  plant  are  used  as  a  food. 

Betel  (Areca  catechu}. — The  seeds  of  this  palm  are  gathered  in  India 
and  elsewhere  for  use  as  a  masticatory,  or  chewing  material.  The  seeds 
are  sliced  and  rolled  up  with  lime  in  leaves  of  the  betel  pepper.  The 
teeth  of  the  consumer  are  stained  with  the  juice. 

Modern  experiments  prove  that  the  production  of  the  nitrogen-con- 
suming plants  (root  crops,  bulb  crops,  stem  crops,  leaf  crops,  flower  crops, 
fruit  crops,  seed  crops,  cereal  crops,  as  above)  should  be  alternated  with 
the  cultivation  of  the  nitrogen-storing  plants,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  beans, 
cowpeas,  soy-beans,  lupines,  which  accumulate  atmospheric  nitrogen  by 
the  agency  of  the  bacteria  in  their  root  nodules.  With  a  view  to  emphasiz- 
ing this  fact  as  we  have  proceeded  with  our  descriptions  approved  rota- 
tions have  been  given  for  various  crop  plants  in  which  rotations  the 
leguminous  plants  have  prominently  figured.  Progressive  farmers  should 
grow-nitrogen  accumulating  plants  for  home  consumption  and  nitrogen- 
consuming  crops  for  sale  and  removal  from  the  farms  where  produced, 
either  to  home,  or  to  foreign  markets.  This  system  should  be  extended  so 
as  to  comprehend  the  whole  country  in  a  complete  and  perfect  system  of 
rotation.  It  will  bring  about  a  diversification  of  agricultural  industries, 
so  as  to  permit  the  cultivation  of  the  crops  best  adapted  to  the  climate  and 
soil  zones  of  America  and  other  countries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Bulletin  16,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1894. 
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to  Cook  Them.    London,  George  Routledge  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  1917. 
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DUGGAR,  J.  F.:  Sweet  Potatoes:  Culture  and  Uses.    Farmers'  Bulletin  26,  1895. 
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238  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

FREEMAN,  W.  G.,  CHANDLER,  S.  E.  and  HENRY,  T.  A.:  The  World's  Commercial  Prod- 
ucts. Boston,  Ginn  and  Company,  1911. 

HALL,  A.  D.:  The  Book  of  Rothamsted  Experiments.  New  York,  E.  P.  Button  and 
Co.,  1905. 

HARSHBERGER,  JOHN  W.:  The  Accumulation  of  Soil  Nitrogen.  Bulletin  151,  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  of  Pennsylvania,  1906,  76-84,  Proceedings  of  the  Spring 
Meeting  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Farmers'  Annual  Normal  Institute 
held  in  the  Court  House,  Clearfield,  Penna.,  -May  29  to  31,  1906;  A  Text  Book  of 
Mycology  and  Plant  Pathology.  Philadelphia,  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  1917; 
28-31;  Maize:  A  Botanical  and  Economic  Study.  Contributions  from  the  Bo- 
tanical Laboratory,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  i,  189-198,  1893.  American 
Food  Plants,  Past  and  Present.  Public  Lectures,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  v: 
215-232;  1917-1918. 

KELLERMAN,  KARL  F.  and  ROBINSON,  T.  R.:  Inoculation  of  Legumes.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  240,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905;  Progress  in  Legume  Inocula- 
tion. Farmers'  Bulletin  315,  1908. 

KEPHART,  HORACE:  The  Book  of  Camping  and  Woodcraft.  A  Guidebook  for  those 
who  Travel  in  the  Wilderness.  New  York,  The  Outing  Publishing  Company, 
1909,  pages  217-255. 

LAWES,  JOHN  B.  and  GILBERT,  J.  HENRY:  The  Battle  in  the  Meadow.  Gardeners' 
Chronicle,  new  ser.,  xii,  390,  Sept.  27,  1879. 

LIPMAN,  JACOB  G.:  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life.  New  York,  The  MacMillan 
Company,  1908. 

MACMILLAN,  H.  F. :  A  Handbook  of  Tropical  Gardening  and  Planting.  Second 
edition,  H.  W.  Cave  &  Co.,  Colombo,  1914. 

MAISCH,  JOHN  M. :  A  Manual  of  Organic  Materia  Medica.  Third  edition,  Philadelphia, 
Lea  Brothers  &  Co.,  1887,  209-252. 

MOORE,  GEORGE  T.:  Soil  Inoculation  for  Legumes.  Bulletin  71,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905. 

MOORE,  GEORGE  T.  and  ROBINSON,  T.  R. :  Beneficial  Bacteria  for  Leguminous  Crops. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  214,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905. 

PIPER,  C.  V.:  Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring.     Farmers'  Bulletin  278,  1907. 

ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.  Philadelphia,  P.  Blakiston's 
Son  &  Co.,  1917.  .  . 

SAUNDERS,  CHARLES  F.:  Useful  Wild  Plants  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
New  York,  Robert  M.  McBride  &  Co.;  1920. 

SMITH,  ERWIN  F.:  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Plant  Diseases.     Volume  2,  1911,  97-146. 

SPRATT,  ETHEL  R. :  A  Comparative  Account  %[  the  Root-nodules  of  the  Leguminosae. 
Annals  of  Botany,  cxxx,  189-199,  April,  1919. 

WILEY,  H.  W.:  The  Sugar  Beet.     Farmers'  Bulletin  52,  1897. 

WILSON,  E.  H.:  A  Naturalist  in  Western  China  with  Vasculum,  Camera  and  Gun. 
New  York,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  n,  48-63,  1913. 

WINSLOW,  CHARLES  EDWARD  AMORY:  Protection  of  River  and  Harbor  Waters  from 
Municipal  Wastes.  Guide  Leaflet  33,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
April,  1911. 


ADDITIONAL    GRAIN    CROPS  239 

ADDITIONAL  CEREAL  AND  GRAIN  CROPS 

BABCOCK,  F.  RAY:  Cereal  Experiments  at  the  Williston  Station.     Bulletin  270,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 
BABCOCK,  F.  RAY  and  SMITH,  RALPH  \V. :  Grains  for  Western,  North  and  South  Dakota. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  878,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1917. 
BALL,  CARLETON  R.:  The  History  and  Distribution  of  Sorghum.     Bulletin  175,  Bureau 

of  Plant  Industry,  1910;  The  Important  and  Improvement  of  the  Grain  Sorghums. 

Bulletin   203,   Bureau  of  Plant   Industry,    1911;   Better   Grain-sorghum   Crops. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  448,  1911;  The  Kaoliangs:  a  New  Group  of  Grain  Sorghums. 

Bulletin  253,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1913. 
BALL,  CARLETON  R.  and  HASTINGS,  STEPHEN  H.:  Grain-sorghum  Production  in  the 

San  Antonio  Region  of  Texas.     Bulletin  237,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1912. 
BALL,  CARLETON  R.  and  LEIDIGH,  ARTHUR  H. :  Milo  as  a  Dry-land  Grain  Crop.     Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  322,  1908. 
BALL,  CARLETON  R.  and  ROTHGEB,  BENTON  E.:  Kafir  as  a  Grain  Crop.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  552,  1913;  Uses  of  Sorghum  Grain.     Farmers'  Bulletin  686,  1915;  How  to 

Use  Sorghum  Grain.     Farmers'  Bulletin  972,  1918;  Grain-sorghum  Experiments  in 

the  Panhandle  of  Texas.     Bulletin  698,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1918. 
BREITHAUPT,  L.  R.:  Grains  for  the  Dry  Lands  of  Central  Oregon.     Farmers'  Bulletin 

800,  1917. 
CHAMPLIN,  MANLEY:  Experiments  with  Wheat,  Oats  and  Barley  in  South  Dakota. 

Bulletin  39,  U.  S.  Department  cf  Agriculture,  1914. 
CHILCOTT,  E.  F.,  GRIGGS,  W.  D.  and  BURMEISTER,  C.  A.:  Corn,  Milo  and  Kafir  in  the 

Southern  Great  Plains  Area:  Relation  of  Cultural  Methods  to  Production.     Bulle- 
tin 242,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 
CLARK,  J.  ALLEN:  Cereal  Experiments  at  Dickinson,  N.  Dak.     Bulletin  33,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  1914. 
DILLMAN,  A.  C.:  Breeding  Millet  and  Sorgho  for  Drought  Adaptation.     Bulletin  291, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1916. 
DONALDSON,  N.  C.:  Cereal  Experiments  at  the  Judith  Basin  Substation,  Moccasin, 

Mont.     Bulletin  398,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1916. 
HASTINGS,  STEPHEN  H.:  The  Importance  of  Thick  Seeding  in  the  Production  of  Milo 

in  the  San  Antonio  Region.     Bulletin   188,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

1915. 
JONES,  JENKIN  W.:  Cereal  Experiments  on  the  Cheyenne  Experiment  Farm,  Archer, 

Wyo.     Bulletin  430,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1916. 
KELLERMAN,  KARL  F.:  A  New  Source  of  Plant  Food,  the  Nodules  on  the  Rubiaceous 

Plants.     Journal  of  Heredity,  x,  307,  October,  1919. 
LETTEER,  C.  R.:  Growing  Grain  Sorghums  in  the  San  Antonio  District  of  Texas. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  965,  1918. 

ROBBINS,  WILFRED  W.:  The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.     P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  1917. 
Ross,  JOHN  F.  and  LEIDIGH,  A.  H. :  Cereal  Experiments  in  the  Texas  Panhandle. 

Bulletin  283,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1913. 
ROTHGEB.   BENTON  E.:  Standard  Broom  Corn.     Farmers'  Bulletin  958,  1918;  Shallu 

or  "Egyptian  Wheat,"     Farmers'  Bulletin  827,  1917;  Dwarf  Broom  Corn.     Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  768,  1916. 


240  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

SALMON,  CECIL:  Cereal  Investigations  on  the  Belle  Fourche  Experiment  Farm.  Bulle- 
tin 297,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 

SCOTT,  GEORGE  A. :  The  Feeding  of  Grain  Sorghums  to  Live  Stock.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
724,  1916. 

SHANTZ,  H.  L.:  National  Vegetation  as  an  Indicator  of  the  Capabilities  of  Land  for 
Crop  Production  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.  Bulletin  201,  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, 1911. 

STEPHENS,  DAVID  E.:  Experiments  with  Spring  Cereals  at  the  Eastern  Oregon  Dry- 
farming  Substation,  Moro,  Ore.  Bulletin  498,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1917. 

VINALL,  H.  N.:  Sudan  Grass  as  a  Forage  Crop.     Farmers'  Bulletin  605,  1914. 

WARBURTON,  C.  W.:  The  Non-saccharine  Sorghums.     Farmers'  Bulletin  288,  1907. 

WILLIAMS,  THOMAS  A.:  Millets.     Farmers'  Bulletin  101,  1899. 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — The  teacher  should  make  a  collection  of  the  root  systems 
of  a  number  of  the  leguminous  plants,  such  as  the  alfalfa,  red  clover,  alsike  clover, 
crimson  clover,  white  clover,  sweet  clover,  soy-bean,  cowpea,  peanut,  bonavist,  kudzu 
vine  and  others.  Part  of  the  material  so  collected  should  be  fixed  with  chrom-acetic 
acid,  or  some  other  fixative,  passed  up  into  50  per  cent,  alcohol,  where  it  should  be 
kept  until  it  is  prepared  for  paraffin  sectioning.  The  other  material  of  similar  nature 
should  be  kept  in  70  per  cent,  alcohol. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  a  comparative  series  of  the  tubercles  or  nodules,  of  such  plants  as  the  alfalfa, 
red  clover,  white  clover,  soy-bean,  cowpea  and  kudzu  vine. 

2.  With  a  razor  make  a  thin  section  through  each  of  the  nodules  above  mentioned 
and  draw  the  arrangement  of  the  bacterial  cells  and  vascular  distribution  with  reference 
to  the  rootlet  on  which  the  nodule  arises. 

3.  Stain  and  mount  in  balsam,  paraffin  sections  of  two  or  three  of  the  tubercles  of 
two  or  three  of  the  above  mentioned  plants.     Study  and  draw  with  the  high  powers  of  the 
microscope.  *   ' 


CHAPTER  17 
WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL 

Definition. — "A  weed  is  a  plant  out  of  place."  This  is  a  short  con- 
cise definition,  easily  remembered  by  students.  "Any  useless,  or  trouble- 
some plant"  is  another  definition"  which  has  been  given  and  in  addition 
longer  definitions  have  been  formulated,  as  follows:  "Every  plant  which 
grows  in  a  field  other  than  that  of  which  the  seed  has  been  (intentionally) 
sown  by  the  husbandman  is  a  weed."  "Any  plant  which  obtrusively 
occupies  cultivated,  or  dressed  ground,  to  the  exclusion  or  injury  of  some 
particular  crop  intended  to  be  grown"  is  another  statement.  "Thus, 
even  the  most  useful  plants  may  become  weeds,  if  they  appear  out  of  their 
proper  place.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  any  insignificant  looking 
or  unprofitable  plants  which  grow  profusely  in  a  state  of  nature,  also  to 
any  noxious,  or  useless  plant.''  "Weeds  aie  plants  which  tend  to  take 
prevalent  possession  of  soil  used  for  man's  purposes,  irrespective  of  his 
will;  and,  in  accordance  with  usage  we  may  restrict  the  term  to  herbs." 

Absolute  and  Relative  Weeds. — Weeds  may  be  divided  into  two  classes ; 
absolute  weeds  and  relative  weeds.  An  absolute  weed  is  one  which  has 
no  recognized  use,  as  the  horse  nettle  (Solanum  car olinense).  A  relative 
weed  is  one  which  may  be  extremely  useful  to  man,  but  becomes  a  weed 
when  out  of  its  proper  place.  The  Johnson  grass  of  the  south  is  an 
example.  It  is  a  very  nutritious  and  valuable  grass,  if  kept  under  con- 
trol, but  if  allowed  to  seed,  it  spreads  rapidly  into  new  ground  and  becomes 
extremely  troublesome  and  difficult  to  eradicate. 

Injurious  Nature  of  Weeds. — Weeds  are  injurious  to  man  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons. 

1.  They  crowd  other  plants.    Two  plants  cannot  occupy  the  same 
ground  at  the  same  time,  and  if  weeds  are  abundant,  they  occupy  the  soil 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  cultivated  plants. 

2.  They  rob  the  soil  of  moisture.     This  may  not  be  harmful,  if  the 
soil  water  is  abundant,  but  when  the  supplies  of  water  are  reduced  during 
dry  weather,  the  weeds  transpire  through  their  leaves  undue  amounts  of 
the  precious  liquid.     Cultivation  of  the  soil  under  such  conditions  is 

16  241 


242.  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

beneficial,  because  it  destroys  the  weeds,  as  water-robbers,  and  secondly, 
it  forms  a  dust  mulch. 

3.  Weeds  absorb  the  mineral  and  other  food  materials  upon  which  the 
crop  brought,  into  competition  with  weeds,  depends.     If  the  weeds   are 
plentiful,   very  considerable  amounts  of  food  substance    are    removed 
from  the  soil  and  are  thus  not  available  to  the  planted  crop. 

4.  Certain  weeds  like  the  morning-glory  and  bindweed  prostrate  the 
cultivated  plants  by  climbing  up  them  and  by  their  weight  causing  the 
growing  crop  plants  to  fall  over. 

5.  The  weedy  plants  form  fruits  and  seeds,  which  become  mixed  with 
those  of  the  growing  economic  plants,  and  are  difficult  to  remove  in  the 
cleaning   of   such    seeds  for  market.     Corn-cockle  becomes  mixed  with 
wheat,  chickweed  with  alfalfa  seeds  and  the  like.     Such  weed  seeds  are 
impurities  and  lower  the  agricultural  and  commercial    value    of   such 
economic  seeds. 

6.  Weeds,    as  the  host  plants  of  injurious  crop  insects,  harbor  the 
insects  from  planting  time  to  planting  time  of  the  crop  plants  on  which 
they  prey.     The  injurious  Colorado  beetle,  which  destroys  the  potato, 
lives  on  the  hedge  mustard,  thistles,  goose-foot  and  other  weedy  herbs. 

7.  Weeds  are  injurious  because  they  harbor  parasitic  fungi.     The 
finger-and-toe  organism  of  the  turnip  lives  on  the  charlock  as  a  weed.     The 
white  rust  of  cabbages  (Cystopus  candidus)  is  found  on  the  shepherd's 
purse. 

8.  Weeds  interfere  with  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  soil,  as  their 
presence  mechanically  obstructs  the  use  of  plow  and  harrow. 

9.  It  has  been  suggested  without  proof  that  weeds  may  poison  the 
soil,  so  as  to  inhibit  the  growth  of  other  plants.     This  relation  has  not 
been  properly  investigated. 

10.  The  roots  of  weeds  penetrate  the  interior  of  the  drains  causing  a 
stoppage,  which  can  be  removed  only  with  difficulty. 

11.  Weeds  are  unsightly  and  objectionable  because  of  their  smell, 
rankness  and  prickly  fruits,  etc. 

12.  Weeds  are  injurious  to  man  and  the  domestic  animals  because 
they  are  poisonous.     This  topic  has  been  dilated  upon  in  the  earlier  chap- 
ters of  this  book  and  need  not  be  discussed  here. 

13.  Weeds  sometimes  render  hay  and  other  harvested  crops  of  less 
financial  value,  and  frequently  reduce  the  yield,  so  that  the  financial 
returns  may  be  such  that  the  crop  is  grown  *at  a  serious  monetary  loss. 


WEEDS    AND    WEED    CONTROL  243 

14.  The  presence  of  weeds  in  such  abundance  as  to  attract  attention 
reduces  the  selling  value  of  the  land  on  which  they  are  found. 

INTRODUCTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

If  the  list  of  American  weeds  is  scanned  carefully  and  analytically, 
it  will  be  found  that  most  of  the  injurious  and  troublesome  weeds  have  been 
introduced  from  Europe.  A  few  have  come  from  elsewhere.  The  ques- 
tion may  be  asked,  why  this  fact  is  so?  Before  the  natural  conditions 
were  much  disturbed  by  white  men  from  Europe,  eastern  America  was  a 
densely  forested  country  in  which  most  of  the  herbaceous  plants  grew 
on  the  forest  floor  in  the  shade  of  the  dominant  forest  trees.  When  the 
forests  were  removed,  these  ground  plants  of  the  woods  were  subjected 
to  the  action  of  the  full  sunlight,  to  the  drying  effects  of  the  wind,  and  to 
a  soil  deprived  of  its  superficial  layers  of  water-retentive  leaf  mold.  They, 
therefore,  were  destroyed  in  large  numbers  of  species,  except  the  more 
hardy  forms  which  adjusted  their  growth  to  the  new  conditions.  The 
introduced  plants,  removed  from  the  inhibition  of  their  European 
competitors,  insect  and  fungous  foes  and  accustomed  for  at  least  a  thousand 
years  to  open  field  cultivation  and  growth  along  roadsides  and  ether 
open  places,  found  the  new  environment  favorable  to  their  rapid  spread 
and  occupancy  of  the  soil  vacated  by  the  native  species  of  plants.  It  has 
been  suggested  also  that  the  European  species  were  more  plastic  than  the 
native  American  plants  and  better  able  to  adjust  their  growth  to  their 
new  surroundings.  Some  of  the  weeds,  however,  came  from  the  west, 
but  were  introduced  later  than  the  advent  and  spread  of  the  overseas  army 
of  weeds.  These  western  weeds  came  in  when  the  cultivated  areas  were 
extended  westward  beyond  the  forested  areas,  so  as  to  occupy  the  open 
prairie  and  steppe  country  to  the  westward.  Opportunity  was  thus 
presented  for  the  native  plants  of  the  prairies  and  steppes  bordering  on  the 
cultivated  districts  to  contribute  somewhat  to  the  weed  flora  of  the 
east,  because  with  the  plowing  of  the  land  these  western  weedy  plants 
found  the  conditions  very  favorable  for  their  eastern  spread,  such  as 
the  carpet  weed  (Mollugo  verticillata) ,  daisy  fleabane  (Erigeron  cana- 
densis),  cocklebur  (Xanthium),  rag  weed  (Ambrosia  artemisiafolia) , 
vervain  (Verbena  hastata,  V.  urticifolia) ,  horse  nettle  (Solanum  carolinense) 
and  others.  Of  late  and  in  consequence  of  increased  communication 
with  the  prairies  and  the  country  beyond  the  Mississippi  River,  the  west- 
ern plants  are  moving  eastward  by  rapid  strides.  Such  are  fetid  mari- 


244 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


gold  (Dyssodia  papposa),  pineapple  weed  (Matricaria  suaveoleiu]  and 
wormwood  (Artemisia  biennis).  Ninety  years  ago  the  black-eyed  susan 
(Riidbeckia  hirta)  nourished  from  the  Alleghany  mountains  westward, 
but  was  unknown  in  the  east.  Now  since  about  1860,  it  has  become  an 
abundant  and  conspicuous  weed  in  grass  fields  throughout  the  eastern 
states,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  having  been  accidentally  intro- 
duced in  red  clover  seeds  from  the  western  states.  The  velvet  leaf  (Abu- 
tilon  Theophrasti]  and  prince's  feather  (Polygonum  orientale)  have  been 
introduced  from  India.  The  bur  clover  came  to  California  from  South 


FIG.  ioo. — Russian  thistle  (Salso  kali  var.  tenuifolia)  as  a  tumbleweed  at  Akron,  Colorado. 
(G.  E.  Nichols,  1913.) 

America.  The  orange  hawk  weed**  (Hieracium  aurantiacum)  was  grown 
from  imported  European  seed  by  the  aunt  of  the  botanist,  Cyrus  G  Pringle, 
in  Charlotte,  Vermont  about  1845.  The  plant  was  much  admired  and  sent 
to  friends  in  Maine,  Massachusetts  and  Vermont,  according  to  Prof.  Geo. 
P.  Burns.  It  was  cultivated  in  some  gardens  of  Maine  under  the  name 
of  tassel-flower,  or  Venus's  paint-brush.  It  propagates  very  freely  by 
runners,  as  well,  as  by  feathery  fruits.  It  is  now  spread  over  large  areas 
of  Maine  and  other  New  England  states,  in  northern  Pennsylvania,  as 
at  Eaglesmere,  where  a  field  of  it  was  noted  by  the  writer  in  full  bloom 
on  June  22,  1905. 


WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL 


245 


Means  of  Distribution.— When  once  introduced,  weeds  migrate  in 
a  number  of  ways  by  natural  and  artificial  means.  The  natural  migra- 
tion of  weeds  is  favored  by  the  possession  of  runners  (slender  radiating 
branches),  by  elongating  rootstocks,  by  running  roots,  by  seed-throwing 
apparatus,  by  having  fleshy  edible  fruits  with  hard  seeds,  by  flying  seeds, 
and  winged  fruits,  by  drifting  over  frozen  ground,  or  snow,  as  tumble 
weeds,  (Fig.  100),  by  means  of  water-carried  seeds,  by  attachment  to  the 
hair  and  fur  of  animals  by  means  of  hooks  and  other  devices.  The  artifi- 
cial means  are  as  follows:  Roots,  rootstocks  and  bulbs  are  sometimes 
carried  from  field  to  field  and  from  farm  to  farm  by  plows,  harrows  and 


FIG.  101. — Extensive  patch  of  bouncing  bet  (Saponaric  officinalis)  along  an  unused 
railroad  siding  across  Hackensack  Meadow,  July  15,  1916. 

cultivators.  Seeds  and  other  plant  parts  are  carried  away  in  the  ball  of 
earth  surrounding  the  roots  of  nurserystock.  They  are  entangled  in 
packing  material,  in  the  waste  from  woolen  mills,  as  the  storksbill  (Erod- 
ium),  in  hay,  in  commercial  seeds,  which  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  ways 
of  weed  introduction.  Weeds  are  carried  along  by  the  disturbance  of  the 
air  through  the  passage  of  trains  (Fig.  101)  and  automobiles  and  on  these 
rapid  means  of  conveyance.  Weeds  have  been  introduced  as  useful  or 
ornamental  plants  which  have  later  escaped  from  cultivation.  They 
have  been  introduced  in  ballast  and  along  with  the  packing  of  commercial 
articles. 


246  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Lines  of  Travel. — The  lines  of  travel  of  weeds  are  of  interest.  The 
chicory  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  near  Dorchester,  Mass, 
in  1875.  It  is  a  common  weed  in  western  Long  Island,  eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania, although  of  recent  introduction  there,  and  in  the  northern  states. 
The  water  hyacinth  (Eichornia  crassipes)  was  introduced  into  the  St. 
Johns'  River  in  Florida  in  1890.  It  has  spread  southward  and  westward 
through  the  state  along  the  river  courses,  so  as  to  choke  them  and  impede 
navigation.  The  cardoon  (Cynara  cardunculus]  introduced  into  Argen- 
tina from  Europe  covers  the  pampas  for  miles.  The  introduced  redtop 
follows  the  abandoned  wagon  tracks  across  the  otherwise  unbroken  prairie 
for  miles. 


SPECIAL  WEED  EXAMPLES 

Goose-Grass  (Eleusine  indica). — This  coarse  grass  came  to  us  from 
India  and  seems  to  be  thoroughly  domesticated.  It  grows  from  clustered, 
fibrous  roots  and  forms  spikes  in  digitate  clusters  at  the  end  of  the  stalk. 
It  grows  as  a  weed  in  yards  and  waste  places.  It  can  be  controlled  in 
lawns  by  squirting  a  few  drops  of  crude  carbolic  acid  into  the  heart  of  a 
tuft  with  a  common  machine  oil-can,  which  treatment  ought  to  kill  it. 

Field  Sorrel  (Rumex  a^etosella). — The  sheep  sorrel  has  extensively 
creeping  rootstocks  with  tufts  of  feeding  roots.  The  radicle  leaves  are 
halberd-shaped  and  from  their  midst  arises  the  flower  stalk  bearing  male 
and  female  flowers  on  separate  plants  (diacious).  Sorrel  can  be  controlled 
by  cultivating  the  soil  and  adding  lime  to  correct  its  acidity  (Fig.  102). 

Russian  Thistle  (Salsola  kali  var.  tenuifolia). — This  chenopodiaceous 
plant  was  introduced  into  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota  in  flax  seed  from 
Russia.  It  is  a  pernicious  weed  in  grain  fields  and  spreads  itself  as  a 
tumble  weed,  scattering  its  seed,  as  it  rolls  over  the  ground  blown  about 
by  the  wind  (Fig.  100).  It  can  be  controlled  by  sowing  only  clean  seed  and 
in  cutting  down  the  weed  before  it  is  allowed  to  seed.  It  then  dies  a 
natural  death. 

Chickweed  (Cerastium  arvense). — This  is  a  pestiferous  weed  in  alfalfa 
fields  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere.  It  is  a  winter  annual  with 
densely  tufted  stems,  opposite,  linear-oblong  leaves  and  white  flowers 
with  bifid  petals.  It  is  difficult  to  eradicate  unless  a  rotation  of  crops  is 
practised,  the  alfalfa,  or  grass  crops  invaded  by  chickweed  being  alter- 
nated with  hoed,  or  cultivated  crops. 


WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL 


247 


Purslane  (Portulaca  oleracea). — This  is  a  bad  weed  in  gardens  (Fig. 
103).     The  experiments  of  W.  J.  Beal  show  that  the  seeds  retain  their 


PIG.  102. — Sheep  sorrel  (Rumex  acetosella).  A  common  weed  in  pastures  and  mea- 
dows, from  Europe.  (Division  of  Bot.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.)  (Reproduced  in 
Pommel,  L.  H.:  Some  Weeds  of  Iowa,  Bull.  70  Experiment  Station,  Iowa  Stale  College, 
1903.  p.  348.) 

vitality  in  the  soil  for  thirty  years.     It  spreads  over  the  ground  with 
thick,  alternate,obovate  leaves.     The  small,  black  seeds  are  produced  in 


248 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


small  capsules,  whose  tops  fall  off  as  a  lid.  Hoeing  up  while  in  the  seedling 
stage  seems  to  be  the  only  way  of  vanquishing  this  weed.  Plants  hung,  up 
to  dry  for  a  month,  if  returned  to  the  soil,  will  begin  their  growth  afresh, 
so  that  the  hoed  plants  should  be  placed  on  the  compost  heap  where 
fermentation  will  destroy  the  plants  and  the  vitality  of  the  seeds. 


FIG.  103.  PIG.  104. 

FIG.  103. — Pusley  (Porlulaca  oleracea).  An  abundant  garden  weed.  (Division  of 
Bot..  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.)  (Reproduced  in  Pommel,  L.  H.:  Some  Weeds  of  Iowa, 
Bull.  70,  Experiment  Station,  Iowa  State  College,  1903,  p.  358.) 

FIG.  104. — Shepherd's  purse  (Capsella  Bursa-pastoris).  Common  everywhere  in 
northern  United  States.  (Division  of  Bot.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.)  (Reproduced 
in  Pommel,  L.  H.:  Some  Weeds  of  Iowa,  Bull.  70,  Experiment  Station,  Iowa  State  College, 
1903.  P-  364-) 

Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  bursa-pastoris}. — This  is  probably  the  most 
widely  distributed  weed  on  earth.  It  develops  a  rosette  of  tufted,  pinna- 
tified  leaves  and  an  erect  raceme  of  small,  white  flowers  and  later  triangular 
flat  silicles.  This  weed  gradually  succumbs  to  constant  tillage,  and  when 
young,  it  is  killed  by  a  spray  of  copper  or  iron  sulfate  (Fig.  104). 

Common  Evening  Primrose  (Oenothera  biennis). — This  stout  biennial 
plant  with  a  rosette  of  lanceolate,  basal  leaves,  and  tall,  leafy-bracted 


WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL  249 

spikes  of  bright-yellow  flowers,  is  a  common  weed  in  some  places.  It  may 
be  controlled  by  cutting  the  crown  of  leaves  from  the  tap  root  with  spud, 
or  hoe,  in  the  first  season  of  its  growth  from  seed.  Plants  with  capsules 
fully  formed  should  be  burned. 

Wild  Carrot  (Daucus  carota). — This  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  common 
weeds  in  the  eastern  states,  for  in  summer  fields  are  white  with  its  flowers 
produced  in  large  spreading  umbels.  The  crowns  of  twice  to  thrice  pinnate 
leaves  are  produced  the  first  season.  Hand-pulling,  as  practised  by  some 


FIG.  105. — Horse  nettle  (Solatium  carolinense),  a  perennial  weed.  (Division  of 
Bot..  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.)  (Reproduced  in  Pammel,  L.  H.:  Some  Weeds  of 
Iowa.  Bull.  70,  Experiment  Station,  Iowa  State  College,  1903,  p.  316.) 

of  the  farmers  on  Nantucket,  is  a  rude  method  of  extermination,  provided 
the  pulling  is  done  before  the  fruits  mature.  Cutting  off  the  leaf  crowns 
with  the  hoe  is  also  efficacious.  In  cultivated  ground  when  the  cultivatoi 
is  used  it  gives  little  trouble,  because  it  is  usually  uprooted  the  first  season 
of  its  growth,  being  a  biennial. 

.  Viper's  Bugloss  (Echium  vulgar e). — This  weed  has  established  itself 
in  the  limestone  soils  of  the  Lebanon,  Cumberland  and  Shenandoah  valleys, 
where  it  is  extremely  common  and  troublesome.  It  is  known,  as  Pater- 


250  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

son's  Curse,  in  Australia.  It  is  a  biennial  arising  from  a  thick  taproot 
and  with  rough,  bristly  hairy  stems  and  leaves.  The  stiff  bristles  arise 
from  fine  red,  tubercles  which  speckle  the  stem.  Hoeing,  or  the  use  of 
the  cultivator  the  first  season  of  its  growth,  is  beneficial,  if  no  seeds  are 
allowed  to  form. 

Horse  Nettle  (Solatium  carolinense) . — The  deep-seated  rootstocks 
are  most  tenacious  of  life  (Fig.  105).  An  Indiana  farmer  states  that  they 
will  live  ten  years  under  a  heap  of  sawdust  and  grow,  as  soon  as  this 
covering  is  removed.  Sheep  are  the  only  grazing  animals  that  will  touch 
the  plant.  The  trailing  stems  and  broad  leaves  of  the  plant  are  charac- 


FIG.  106. — Two  specimens  of  Ox-eye  daisy  (Chrysanthemum  Leucanthe.mum  var. 
pinnatifidum)  in  a  sand-lot  at  Belmar,  N.  J.,  June  23,  1919.  The  right  hand  plant  had 
a  spreading  habit  with  stiff,  stout  bluish-green  stems  margined  with  purple  lines.  It 
had  79  compact  heads  with  crowded  rayflowers  of  medium  length.  The  left  hand  plant,  a 
third  taller  than  the  other,  was  of  a  light  green  color  with  broader  heads,  the  ray  florets 
narrower,  longer  and  more  pointed.  The  stems  were  less  stout,  more  flexuous  and  the 
whole  plant  with  76  head-bearing  stems.  These  are  probably  mutants  of  the  common 
field  daisy. 

terized  by  sharp  yellow  prickles.  The  flowers  with  pale- violet,  rotate 
corollas  are  borne  in  open  cymose  clusters.  It  forms  a  small,  yellow  berry 
full  of  flat  straw-colored  seeds.  If  the  area  where  it  grows  is  not  large,  it 
may  be  killed  by  the  use  of  hot  brine,  caustic  soda,  or  kerosene.  The 
production  of  seeds  should  be  prevented  and  the  plants  frequently  cut  up 
with  hoe,  or  spade.  Salt  on  the  cut  surfaces  will  retard  growth.  The 
rootstocks  may  be  destroyed  by  short  rotations,  alternating  thoroughly 
cultivated  crops.  Two  or  three  seasons  of  continuous  effort  are  required 
to  suppress  this  pest. 

Yellow  Toad-Flax  (Linaria  vulgaris). — The  deep,  running  rootstocks 
of  this  weed  make  it  difficult  to  suppress.  The  plant  grows  about  eighteen 


WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL 


251 


inches  tall  beset  with  narrow,  linear,  alternate  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
labiate,  spurred  and  yellow  in  color  produced  through  the  summer.  The 
capsule  is  ovoid,  two  celled  and  filled  with  fifty  to  sixty  flattened  rough, 
wing-margined  seeds.  Small  areas  of  this  weed  may  be  controlled  by 
strong  herbicides  such  as  hot  brine,  or  caustic  soda.  The  use  of  a  cultiva- 
tor tends  to  spread  the  weed.  Hoes  and  hand  labor  are  more  effective. 
Persistent  cutting  will  cause  the  rootstocks  to  starve  to  death. 


PIG.  107. — Ox-eye  daisy  (Crysanthemum  leucanthemum).  Common  in  the  East. 
(Division  of  Bot.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.)  (Reproduced  in  Pommel,  L.  H.:  Some 
Weeds  of  Iowa.  Bull.  70  Experiment  Station,  Iowa  State  College,  1903,  p.  337.) 

Ox-eye  Daisy  (Chrysanthemum  leucanthemum  pinnatifidum) . — The 
stems  of  white  daisy  are  tufted  from  one  to  three  feet  high  bearing  a  head 
of  flowers  with  white  marginal  ones  and  yellow  disc  florets.  The  root 
leaves  are  in  a  rosette  and  are  spatulate,  pinnatifid.  The  achenes,  which 
are  found  as  an  impurity  in  nearly  all  grass  seeds,  are  grayish-black  and 
finely  ribbed  without  peppers.  Clean  seed  only  should.be  sowed.  The 
daisy  field  can  be  cleansed  by  short  rotations,  as  the  perennial  roots  are 


252 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


turned  out  and  killed  by  the  plow.  Mowing  infested  fields  before  the 
heads  develop  is  another  useful  means  of  extermination  (Figs.  106  and 
107). 

Canada  Thistle  (Cirsium  arvense). — Nearly  all  of  the  states  have  laws 
which  make  it  an  offense  for  their  citizens  to  permit  this  weed  to  mature 
and  scatter  its  seeds.  It  is  a  perennial  propagated  by  seeds  and  rootstocks. 
The  map  shows  its  range  (Fig.  108). 


PIG.  1 08. — Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  present  distribution  of  the 
Canada  thistle.  The  heavy  line  indicates  the  approximate  southern  boundary  of  the 
weed;  the  shaded  area  shows  where  the  plant  is  most  injurious.  (After  Hansen,  Albert 
A.:  Canada  Thistle  and  Methods  of  Eradication.  Farmers'  Bulletin  1002,  1918,  p.  5.) 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  WEEDS 

Weeds  are  conveniently  classified  according  to  the  duration  of  their 
underground  parts  into : 

1.  Annual  weeds,  or  those  which  complete  their  growth  and  mature 
their  seeds  in  one  year.     Such  plants  are  easily  destroyed  by  cultivation. 
Here  belong  ragweed,  crabgrass,  purslane,  pigweed  and  Russian  thistle. 

2.  Winter  annuals.     These  plants  drop  their  seeds  in  the  fall  which 
germinate  and  give  rise  to  plants  which  hold  through  the  winter,  finally 
producing  flowers  and  seeds  in  the  spring.     Such  are  the  chickweed  and 
shepherd's  purse.     Here  also  is  the  prickly  lettuce  and  dead  nettle. 


WEEDS    AND   WEED    CONTROL 


FIG.  109. — Mullein  (Verbascum  thapsus)  in  sandy  field  at  Bayville,  northern  shore  of 
Long  Island,  July  9,  1919.     An  unusually  thrifty  plant. 


FIG.   no. — Field  of  Mullein  (Verbascum  thapsus)  near  Lake  Mombasha,  N.  Y.,  July  30, 

1914. 


254 


PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


3.  Biennials.     The  plants  of  this  class  expend  their  energy  the  first 
season  in  forming  a  root  system  and  foliage  leaves.     The  second  year 
flowers  are  formed  and  the  seeds  are  matured.     The  burdock  (A rctium 
lappa),  the  sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba),  the  wild  carrot  (Daucus  carota), 
the  mullein  (Figs.  109  and  no),  and  the  teasel  belong  here. 

4.  The  fourth  class  includes  the  perennial  weeds,  which  perennate 
by  means  of  roots,  rootstocks,  bulbs,  tubers  and  other  underground  per- 
ennating   organs.     A  number  of  our  noxious  weeds  are  propagated  by 
running,  or  creeping  roots,  such  as,  milkweed  (Asclepias  cornuti),  bindweed 


FIG.  in. — -Clump  of  dandelion  (Taraxacum  ojf.cinale)  on  a  sand  lot  at  Belmar, 
N.  J.,  June  23,  1919.  The  clump  was  one  foot  high  with  213  leaves  and  40  head-bearing 
scapes. 


(Con-volvulus  arvensis),  sheep  sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella),  Indian  hemp 
(Apocynum  cannabinum)  and  pasture  thistle  (Cirsium).  Many  weeds  are 
propagated  by  subterranean  stems  or  rhizomes.  The  list  includes  quack 
grass  (Agropyron  repens),  poison  ivy  (Rhus  radicans),  morning  glory 
(Convolvulus  sepium) . 

5.  Crown  weeds.  These  have  usually  a  deeply  penetrating  tap  root, 
which  produces  shoots  around  its  margin,  when  cut  off  close  to  the  ground 
by  a  lawn  mower,  or  mowdng  machine.  The  dandelion  (Taraxacum 
officinale,  (Fig.  in)  ribgrass  (Plantago  lanceolata),  curled  dock  (Rumex 
crispus)  are  crownweeds. 


WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL  255 

DESTRUCTION  OF  WEEDS 

The  destruction  of  weeds  may  be  accomplished  in  a  number  of  ways. 
All  of  these  are  based  on  a  scientific  study  of  the  vitality,  morphological 
structure  and  growth  of  the  common  weeds  of  farm  and  garden.  The 
following  are  the  approved  methods  of  controlling  and  exterminating 
weeds. 

1.  It  is  important  to  prevent  the  production  of  seeds  in  the  attempt  to 
control  weeds.     It  has  been  shown  that  some  weed  seeds  have  great  vitality. 
De  Candolle,  who  first  carried  on  experiments  along  this  line,  showed  this 
is  especially  true  of  the  seeds  belonging  to  the  families  Leguminosce  and 
Mahacece.     Becquerel  later  studied  the  vitality  of  seeds  and  he  found 
that  of  550  species  investigated  by  him  that  the  age  of  the  seeds  varied 
from  125  to  1*35  years  and  that  a  few  of  the  old  seeds  especially  of  the  pulse 
and  mallow  families  germinated  on  trial.     Ewart  found  that  6  per  cent, 
of  the  seeds  of  the  common  Indian  mallow  germinated  after  the  lapse  of 
57  years  and  seeds  of  the  white  clover  after  77  years  and  chicory  after 
10  years.     The  most  noteworthy  experiments  were  performed  by  Prof. 
W.  J.  Beal  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  testing  the 
vitality  of  seeds  at  intervals  of  five,  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  twenty-five 
years.     The  seeds  were  placed  in  sand  in  bottles  slanting  downward  so 
that  water  could  not  enter.     These  bottles  were  buried  in  the  soil  twenty 
inches  below  the  surface.     The  following  seeds  germinated  on  each  of  the 
trials  separated  by  five  year  intervals  up  to  the  twenty-fifth  year.     Ama- 
ranthus  retroflexus,  Brassica  nigra,  Capsella  bursa-pastoris,  Lepidium  vir- 
ginicum,    Anthemis    cotula,    Oenothera    biennis,    Polygonum    hydro  piper, 
Portulaca  oleracea,  Rumex  crispus.    Stellaria  media.     Verbascum  thapsus. 
Success  in  exterminating  weeds,  where  the  seeds  retain  their  vitality  for 
twenty-five  years  in  the  soil,  is  only  the  result  of  eternal  vigilance  in  pre- 
venting seed  production. 

2.  Weeds  should  be  cut  repeatedly,  so  as  to  exhaust  the  reserve  sup- 
plies of  food  stored  in  the  underground  parts.     The  underground  parts 
are  thus  starved  to  death. 

3.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated  intensively  so  as  to  root  up  and  de- 
stroy the  growing  weeds. 

4.  The  ground  should  be  occupied  by  some  cover  crop  which  by  the 
density  of  its  growth  will  crowd  out  the  weeds.     Larger  heavier  crops  mean 
fewer  weeds. 


256  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

5.  The  sugar  cane  crop  in  the  Hawaiian  islands  was  formerly  invaded 
by  troublesome  weeds.     These  have  been  exterminated  by  covering  the 
planted  cane  with  thick  felt  paper,  which  smothers  the  weeds  of  the  cane- 
fields,  but  permits  the  sharp  points  of  the  growing  cane  stems  to  push 
through  into  the  sunlight.     The  paper  used  for  this  purpose  was  formerly 
imported  into  the  islands,  but  is  now  manufactured  out  of  the  fiber  ob- 
tained from  the  sugar  cane  stems,  that  have  been  through  the  sugar 
mills  and  from  which  the  sugar  has  been  extracted. 

6.  Soils  are  sometimes  sour  and  as  a  consequence  have  a  particular 
weed  flora,  which  will  disappear,  if  the  land  is  judiciously  treated  with 
lime. 

7.  Some  weeds  flourish  in  a  wet  soil,,  so  that  thorough  drainage  of 
such  soils  will  lead  to  the  disappearance  of  the  troublesome  plants. 

8.  The  farmer  should  take  the  precaution  of  buying  only  pure  seeds 
and  in  having  those  seeds  tested  (see  next  chapter),  as  many  weeds  are 
introduced  by  the  sowing  of  agricultural  seeds  containing  a  considerable 
number  of  weed  seeds. 

9.  It  has  been  suggested  without  any  trial  on  a  large  scale  that  weeds 
might  be  exterminated  by  inoculating  them  with  pure  cultures  of  destruc- 
tive parasitic  fungi.     As  possible  fungi  for  trial  may  be  mentioned  the  rust 
of  Canada  thistle  (Puccinia  suaveolens)  and  the  spot  disease  of  smart 
weed  (Septoria  polygonum). 

10.  The  application  of  chemical  herbicides  has  been  tried  success- 
fully in  some  cases. 

Common  Salt  (Sodium  chloride). — This  is  the  cheapest,  handiest  and 
safest  of  herbicides. 

Copperas  (Iron  sulfate). — This  chemical  is  comparatively  cheap  and 
as  an  herbicide.  It  should  be  used  as  a  spray. 

Bluestone  (Copper  sulfate). — This  is  used  in  solution  of  twelve  pounds 
of  copper  sulfate  to  a  barrel  of  water  (52  gallons). 

Carbolic  Acid  (Phenol). — This,  because  of  its  cost,  can  be  used  only 
in  small  areas. 

Caustic  Soda  (Sodium  hydrate). — This  is  better  than  carbolic  acid  for 
killing  poison  ivy. 

Corrosive  sublimate  (Mercuric  bichloride). — One  ounce  of  chemical 
to  six  gallons  of  water. 

Arsenite  of  Soda. — A  very  active  poison  used  in  a  solution  which  is 
sprayed  on  the  plants. 


WEEDS  AND  WEED  CONTROL  257 

1 1 .  There  are  several  other  precautions  which  should  be  taken  in  the 
control  of  weeds.     One  of  these  is  care  to  prevent  the  introduction  of 
weeds  in  the  manure  used  as  a  fertilizer  and  in  the  hay  and  straw  brought 
on  to  the  farm. 

12.  Pasturing  weed  infested  fields  will  help  to  keep  the  weeds  in  check, 
especially ,  if  sheep  are  allowed  to  browse  in  the  weedy  pastures.     Goats  are 
more  omnivorous  than  sheep. 

13.  The  open  fields  may  be  burned  repeatedly,  when  the  herbage  is 
dry,  and  this  annual  conflagration  aids  in  keeping  the  weeds  in  check. 

WEED  LEGISLATION 

Weed  destruction  and  control  requires  individual  and  collective,  or 
communal  effort.  This  arises  from  the  manner  of  the  dispersal  of  weed 
seeds.  If  one  farmer  neglects  his  farm  and  allows  the  weeds  to  get  the 
mastery,  his  neighbors'  fields  will  be  covered  by  the  dispersion  of 
the  weed  seeds  in  all  directions.  This  fact  and  the  perversity  of  human 
nature  necessitates  that  laws  be  made  to  control  the  weed  problem  of 
state  or  community.  Many  American  states  have  adopted  weed  stat- 
utes. To  be  effective  a  weed  law  must  be  specific  with  respect  to  the  weeds 
to  be  destroyed,  while  the  dates  assigned  for  work  and  the  methods  em- 
ployed must  be  adapted  to  these  plants.  It  must  be  open  to  change  as 
to  the  plants  named  in  the  law,  because  there  is  the  constant  introduction 
of  new  and  troublesome  wreeds.  A  weed  law  should  furthermore,  impose 
weed  destruction  in  such  manner  as  to  lay  the  least  burden,  while  at  the 
same  time  fixing  the  responsibility  upon  the  persons  using  the  land,  who  are 
benefitted  by  it.  A  weed  law  must  be  operative.  The  careless  user  of 
land  is  often  an  offender.  A  definite  officer  should  be  charged  with  the 
supervision  of  such  matters  as  may  come  within  his  purview. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

AMERICAN  WRITER:  Weeds.     Gardeners'   Chronicle  &  Agricultural  Gazette.     1873, 

1419  (October,  18). 
BEAL,  W.  J.:  Michigan  Weeds.     Bulletin  267  (Second  Edition),  Michigan  Agricultural 

College  Experiment  Station,  Botanical  Department,  November,  1915. 
GATES,  J.  S.:  The  Weed  Factor  in  the  Cultivation  of  Corn.     Bulletin  257,  Bureau  of 

Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1912. 
Cox,  H.   R.:  Wild  Onion:  Methods  of  Eradication.     Farmers'  Bulletin  610,  U.    S. 

Department   of   Agriculture,    1914.   Weeds:   How   to    Control  Them.     Farmers' 
17 


258  PASTORAL   AND   AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Bulletin  660,  1915;  Eradication  of  Ferns  from  Pasture  Lands  in  the  Eastern  United 

States.    Farmers'  Bulletin  687,  1915. 
DARLINGTON,  WILLIAM:  American  Weeds  and  Useful  Plants.     Second  edition,  New 

York,  Orange  Judd  &  Company,  1859. 
DEWEY,  LYSTER  H.:  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them.    Farmers'  Bulletin  28,  1895. 

Legislation  Against  Weeds.     Bulletin  17,  Division  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture,  1896;  Migration  of  Weeds.     Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  1896,  263-286.  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them.     Farmers'  Bulletin  28, 

second  revision,  1905. 
DUVEL,  J.  W.  T. :  The  Vitality  of  Buried  Seeds.     Bulletin  83,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 

1905. 
FERNALD,  M.  L.:  Some  Recently  Introduced  Weeds.     Transactions  Massachusetts 

Horticultural  Society,  1905,  Part  I,  pages  11-22. 

FORSYTE,  ALEX:  Weeds.     Gardeners'  Chronicle,  new  ser.,  viii,  408,  Sept.  29,  1877. 
GEORGIA,  ADA  E.:  A  Manual  of  Weeds.     New  York,  The  MacMillan  Company,  1914. 
GRAY,  ASA:  Weeds.     Gardeners'  Chronicle,  new  ser.,  xii,  423,  455,  Oct.  4,  1879. 
HANSEN,  ALBERT  A. :   Canada  Thistle  and  Methods  of  Eradication.  Farmers'  Bulletin 

1002,  1918. 

HASKELL,  S.  B.:  Vitality  of  Buried  Seed.     The  Country  Gentleman,  March  17,  1917. 
HENKEL,  ALICE:  Weeds  Used  in  Medicine.     Farmers'  Bulletin  188,  1904. 
HILLMAN,  'F.  H.:  Nevada  Weeds.     Bulletins  21,  22,  1893,  38,  1897,  University  of 

Nevada,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

LITERARY  DIGEST:  A  Crop  that  Makes  its  Own  Weed  Killer.     May  18,  1918,  page  22. 
PAMMEL,  L.  H.:  Weeds  of  the  Farm  and  Garden.     New  York,  Orange  Judd  Company, 

1911.    The  Weed  Flora  of  Iowa.     Bulletin  4,  Iowa  Geological  Survey,  1918. 
PIPAL,  F.  J.:  Wild  Garlic  and  Its  Eradication.     Bulletin  176,  Purdue  University 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1914.     Red  Sorrel  and  Its  Control.     Bulletin 

197,  1916;  Rabbit-proof  Plants,  List  of.     The  Garden,  I,  9,  Nov.  25,  1871. 
SELBY,  A.  D.:  A  First  Ohio  Weed  Manual.     Bulletin  83,  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  1897. 
WILLIS,  J.  J.:  Vitality  of  Seeds  Buried  in  the  Soil  (review  of  the  work  of  W.  J.  Beal). 

Gardeners'  Chronicle,  new  ser.,  xxv,  757,  June  12,  1886. 
WOODSTOCK,  CHARLES  M.:  To  Eradicate  Moss  from  Grass-land.     Gardeners'  Chronicle 

&  Agricultural  Gazette,  1869,  671-72  (June  19). 

Suggestion  to  Teachers. — Teachers  should  have  made  collections  of  a  number  of 
the  principal  weeds  and  weed  seeds,  also  illustrations  of  the  same  for  class  demonstra- 
tions. An  attempt^  should  be  made  to  make  an  herbarium  and  set  of  dried  weeds  of 
the  local  flora,  as  the  weed  flora  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  dried  or  fresh  specimens  of  the  weeds  handed  to  you  making  floral 
diagrams  of  the  flower  parts. 

2.  Examine  the  fruits  and  seeds  of  a  number  of  leguminous  plants  with  especial 
reference  to  the  structure,  method  of  dehiscence  and  arrangement  of  seeds. 

3.  Draw  and  study  in  detail  the  seeds  of  a  few  of  the  above  plants,  or  any  good 
substitutes. 


CHAPTER  1 8 
AGRICULTURAL    SEEDS,    SEED    SELECTION    AND    TESTING 

General  Considerations. — As  the  success  of  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural operations,  next  to  the  preparation  of  the  soil  and  a  propitious 
climate,  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  seeds  which  are  sown,  it  is 
obvious,  that  for  the  seeding  of  the  crop,  the  best  seed  is  not  good  enough. 
With  the  seed  sown  to  produce  a  given  crop,  if  great  care  is  not  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  the  seed,  may  go  along  weed  seeds,  the  eggs  of  destruc- 
tive insects  and  the  spores  of  destructive  fungi.  Hence,  the  farmer 
must  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  see  that  his  seed  is  pure  and  without 
these  objectionable  concomitants.  If  the  farmer  does  not  select  and  test 
the  seeds  himself,  he  must  delegate  that  work  to  another  person,  who  as  a 
trained  botanist,  is  connected  with  some  central  seed  control  station 
maintained  by  a  Cooperative  Farmers'  Association,  or  by  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  maintained  by  the  state,  or  the  national  government. 
The  seeds,  which  are  purchased  for  use,  will  have  been  passed  upon  by  the 
specialists  before  they  are  planted  by  the  farmers.  This  has  given  rise  to 
pure  seed  acts  by  a  number  of  the  states,  by  the  national  government, 
and  by  the  Canadian  government  looking  to  the  control  of  the  seeds  which 
are  purchased  for  use  in  the  raising  of  the  crops  upon  which  the  prosperity 
of  the  states  depends. 

History.— The  idea  of  controlling  the  quality  of  seeds  offered  for  sale 
in  the  market  by  scientific  methods  was  put  into  operation  at  the  first 
institution  for  testing  commercial  seeds  established  at  Tharandt,  Germany, 
in  1870  by  Dr.  Friedrich  Nobbe,  who  published  in  1876  a  compendious 
treatise  "Handbuch  der  Samenkunde"  later  to  be  followed  in  1885  with 
"Landwirthschaftliche  Samenkunde"  by  Dr.  C.  D.  Harz,  a  work  of 
1362  pages,  published  in  two  volumes.  Other  European  stations  were 
established  and  in  1877  the  Connecticut  Station  began  the  testing  of  seeds. 
Omitting  a  consideration  of  the  laws  for  seed  control  upon  the  statute 
books  of  the  different  states,  reference  to  the  more  important  available 
pamphlets  on  such  laws  will  be  found  in  the  bibliography  for  this  chapter, 
and  we  are  free  to  proceed  with  a  discussion  of  practical  seed  testing. 

259 


260  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Apparatus  for  Seed  Testing. — Most  seed  control  stations  have  elabo- 
rate apparatus,  which  is  used  in  the  scientific  study  of  the  seed  control 
problems.  Such  apparatus  is  described  in  various  bulletins  and  text- 
books enumerated  below  and  need  not  be  described  in  detail  here.  The 
following  apparatus  is  recommended  for  use  in  making  purity  and  germina- 
tion tests. 

PURITY  TESTS 

1.  A  chemical  balance,  weighing  up  to  100  grams  and  sensitive  to  i 
milligram,  with  accurate  metric  weights. 

2.  A  seed  mixer  and  sampler. 

3.  A  nest  of  small  copper  sieves. 

4.  A  vertical  air-blast  seed  separator. 

5.  A  reading  glass  mounted  on  a  stand. 

6.  A  hand  lens,  magnifying  from  10  to  16  diameters. 

7.  A  standard  dissecting  microscope. 

8.  Botanical  forceps  and  dissecting  instruments. 

9.  An  authentic  collection  of  the  seeds  of  the  principal  weeds  and 
cultivated  plants. 

GERMINATION  TESTS 

1.  Standard,  or  Semper 's  germinating  chambers,  equipped  with  low- 
temperature  thermostats  and  thermometers. 

2.  Blue  blotting  paper  and  canton  flannel. 

3.  Sterilized  sifted  sand  and  shallow  greenhouse  flats. 

4.  Forceps. 

5.  Blank  Forms  for  Record  and  Report. 

Ordinarily  such  elaborate  apparatus  is  not  necessary  for  the  simple 
experiments  that  a  farmer  ought  to  make  in  testing  his  seeds.  He  ought 
to  have  two  dissecting  needles,  a  small  scalpel,  a  pair  of  forceps,  a  hand 
lens  magnifying  16  diameters,  a  small  chemical  balance,  a  small  graduated 
cylinder  holding  about  100  cubic  centimeters,  a  dinner  plate,  a  small 
bell  jar,  and  several  mats  made  by  sewing  squares  of  blotting  paper  be- 
tween two  pieces  of  canton  flannel. 

PRACTICAL  SEED  TESTING 

There  are  four  fundamental  points  to  be  considered  in  practical  seed 
testing.  They  are: 


AGRICULTURAL    SEEDS,    SELECTION   AND    TESTING 


26l 


i.-  Whether  the  seeds  belong  to  the  species  which  it  is  desired  to  plant. 

2.  Whether  the  sample  is  free  from  deliberate  adulterations  and  from 
noxious  weed  seeds  and  other  noxious  impurities. 

3.  Whether  the  sample  possesses  a  high  percentage  of  viable  seeds  and 
high  vital  energy,  as  shown  by  the  rapidity  with  which  germination 
takes  place. 

4.  Whether  they  are  of  at  least  average  volume- weight. 

In  determining  the  first  point,  whether  the  seeds  belong  to  the  species 
which  it  is  desired  to  plant,  a  selected  sample  is  spread  out  upon  a  piece 


FIG.  112. — Mixture  of  weed  seeds  commonly  found  in  low-grade  alsike  clover  seed: 
a,  alsike  clover;  b,  white  clover;  c,  red  clover;  d,  yellow  trefoil;  e,  Canada  thistle;  /, 
dock;  g,  sorrel;  h,  buckhorn;  i,  rat-tail  plantain;  k,  lamb's  quarters;  I,  shepherd' s-purse; 
m,  mayweed;  n,  scentless  camomile;  i,  white  campion;  p,  night-flowering  catch-fly; 
q,  oxeye  daisy;  r,  small-fruited  false  flax;  s,  cinquefoil;  t,  two.kindsof  peppergrass;  u, 
catnip;  v,  timothy;  x,  chickweed;  y,  Canada  bluegrass;  z,  clover  dodder;  I,  mouse-ear 
chickweed;  2,  knot-grass;  3,  tumbling  amaranth;  4,  rough  amaranth;  5,  heal-all;  6, 
lady's-thumb.  (Enlarged.)  (After  Hillman,  F.  H.:  The  Adulteration  of  Forage-Plant 
Seeds.  Farmers'  Bulletin  382,  1909,  p.  10.) 


of  white  paper  and  the  seeds  gone  over  one  by  one  (Fig.  112).  All  foreign 
seeds,  if  any  are  present,  are  removed  and  later  weighed.  The  percentage 
obtained  by  weighing  will  give  the  purity  of  the  sample.  In  purchasing 
seeds  in  the  market,  we  cannot  expect  to  obtain  the  highest  possible  qual- 
ity, or  100  per  cent,  of  real  worth.  One  hundred  per  cent,  is  the  ideal 
standard  of  measurement  and  at  best  we  can  only  hope  to  approximate  it. 
Agricultural  seeds,  99  per  .cent,  pure,  may  be  considered  to  be  very  high 


262  PASTORAL    AND   AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

grade  seeds,  for  with  improved  methods  of  farming,  improvement  in  the 
purity  of  seeds  is  very  rapid. 

The  second  point  is  determined"  in  the  same  way,  only  particular  at- 
tention is  given  to  the  removal  of  the  weed  seeds,  which  may  be  mixed 
in  the  sample.  After  all  the  weed  seeds  and  other  impurities  are  removed, 
their  weight  is  taken  and  we  can  then  determine  the  percentage  of  weed 
seeds  present  in  the  sample.  The  seed  specialist  goes  further  than  this 
and  determines  the  particular  kind  of  weed  seeds  which  are  present. 
Constant  practice  and  a  knowledge  of  the  different  kinds  of  seeds  will 
enable  him  in  many  cases  to  determine  what  seeds  are  present,  but  oc- 
casionally seeds  are  found,  which  he  is  unable  to  identify.  The  botanist 
then  has  recourse  to  illustrations  and  to  the  collection  of  seeds,  which  all 
well  equipped  seed  laboratories  have  amassed  for  the  purposes  of  such 
comparison.  Unless  the  seed  is  of  an  unusual  kind,  the  identification 
can  be  made  quickly  with  such  aids  at  hand.  Inert  matter  in  some  seed 
tests  are  included  in  the  final  statement,  as  to  the  seed  impurities.  Inert 
matter  includes  dirt,  stones,  chaff,  sticks  and  the  like.  One  of  the  best 
laboratories  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States  is  maintained  by  the  Colo- 
rado Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Fort  Collins,  Colorado.  The 
findings  of  the  seed  specialist  there,  as  to  the  chief  weed  seeds  in  Colorado 
crop  seeds,  may  be  taken  as  a  sample  of  the  kind  of  work  done  in  the  test- 
ing of  seeds  taken  from  the  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Colorado  Seed 
Laboratory  for  1918. 

The  chief  weed  seeds  in  Colorado  crop  seeds  are:  Wild  oats,  black 
bindweed,  rough  pigweed,  lamb's  quarters,  sunflower,  field  sorrel,  Rus- 
sian thistle,  and  green  foxtail.  Other  common  weed  seeds  are  wild 
mustard,  Indian  mustard,  buckhorn,  red-stemmed  plantain,  cow  cockle, 
slender  wheat-frass,  prostrate  pigweed,  common  ragweed,  sedge,  large 
mouse-eared  chickweed,  fetid  marigold,  barnyard  grass,  gumweed,  pepper- 
grass,  witch  grass,  spotted  smartweed,  five-finger,  curled  dock,  pigeon- 
grass,  and  buffalo  bur. 

There  were  188  different  kinds  of  weed  seeds  occurring  as  impurities 
in  crop  seeds. 

The  analyses  show  the  following  most  common  impurities  of  the  im- 
portant crop  seeds  sold  in  Colorado. 

Alfalfa. — Indian  mustard,  dodders,  prostrate  pigweed,  tall  pigweed, 
lamb's  quarters,  barnyard-grass,  sunflower,  gumweed,  sweet  clover, 
witch-grass,  curled  dock,  Russian  thistle,  dnd  green  foxtail  (Figs.  113  and 
114). 


AGRICULTURAL    SEEDS,    SELECTION   AND   TESTING 


263 


Barley. — Wild  oats,  black  bindweed  or  wild  buckwheat,  and  sunflower. 
Blue-grass. — Peppergrass,  sour  sorrel,  chickweed,  and  sedges. 
Cane. — Russian  thistle. 

Millet. — Tall  pigweed,  ragweed,  lamb's  quarters,  sunflower,  Russian 
thistle,  smartweed,  green  foxtail,  yellow  foxtail. 


FIG.  113. — Alfalfa  of  good  quality.  Natural  size  and  magnified  9.  times.  {After 
Brown,  Edgar  and  Crosby,  Mamie  L.:  Imported  Low-grade  Clover  and  Alfalfa  Seed. 
Bull,  in,  Part  III,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1907). 


FIG.  114. — Imported  alfalfa  of  low  grade.  Natural  size  and  magnified  9  times. 
(After  Brown,  Edgar  and  Crosby,  Mamie  L.:  Imported  Low-grade  Clover  and  Alfalfa  Seed. 
Bull,  in,  Part  III,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1907.) 

Oats. — Wild  oats,  black  bindweed  or  wild  buckwheat,  lamb's  quarters, 
sunflower,  and  Russian  thistle. 

Red  Top. — Rugel's  plantain,  yarrow,  sedge,  rush,  and  five-finger  (Figs. 
115  and  116.) 

Sorghums. — Pigweed,  ragweed,  sunflower,  and  Russian  thistle. 

Sudan  grass. — Tall  pigweed,  lamb's  quarters,  sunflower,  Russian 
thistle,  and  buffalo  bur. 


264 


PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 


Sweet  Clover. — Slender  wheat-grass,  tall  pigweed,  lamb's  quarters, 
sunflower,  Russian  thistle,  and  green  foxtail. 

Timothy. — Rugel's  plantain,  peppergrass,  and  sheep  sorrel. 


FIG.  115. — Red  clover  of  good  quality.  Natural  size  and  magnified  9  times. 
(After  Brown,  Edgar  and  Crosby,  Mamie  L.:  Imported  Low-grade  Clover  and  Alfalfa  Seed. 
Bull,  ni,  Part  III,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1907). 

The  third  point  as  to  the  vitality  of  the  seeds,  which  the  farmer  pro- 
poses to  purchase,  can  only  be  determined  by  an  actual  test  of  the  power 
of  germination  of  the  seeds  to  be  tested  (Fig.  117).  Some  seeds,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  resting  period  has  not  been  covered,  refuse  to  germinate 


FIG.  116. — Imported  red  clover  of  low  grade.  Natural  size  and  magnified  9  times. 
(After  Brown,  Edgar  and  Crosby,  Mamie  L.:  Imported  Low-grade  Clover  and  Alfalfa 
Seed.  Bull,  in,  Part  III,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1907.) 

when  first  planted,  while  other  seeds,  such  as  the  clovers,  will  germinate 
twelve  hours  after  the  "harvest  ripeness"  stage  occurs.  In  other  cases 
sound  and  viable  seeds  are  delayed  in  sprouting  by  an  impermeable  seed 
coat.  In  practical  seed-testing,  where  one  hundred,  or  more,  seeds  are 
placed  in  the  germination  chamber,  or  in  a  more  simple  way  between  the 


AGRICULTURAL    SEEDS,    SELECTION   AND    TESTING 


265 


wet  blotter  pads  on  a  dinner  plate  (Fig.  118)  under  a  bell  jar,  the  following 
times  may  be  taken  as  the  ones  in  which  more  than  one-half  the  seeds  used 
may  be  expected  to  sprout:  The  cereals,  clovers,  opium  poppy,  cruci- 
fers,  spurry,  vetchlings  and  peas — three  days. 

Cucurbits,  beans,  flax,  spinach,  buckwheat,  rye,  wheat  and  timothy 
grass — four  days. 


FIG.   118.- — Homemade  seed  tester.     A,  closed:  B,  open.  , 

Hillman,  F.  H.:  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  its  Impurities.     Farmers'  Bulletin  260, 1906,  p.  8.) 

Oats,  tall  oat  grass,  canary  gras?,  maize,  meadow  fescue  and  ray  grasses 
— five  days. 

Red  top,  sainfoin,  beet,  carrot  (Fig.  119)  and  others — six  days. 

Meadow  foxtail,  yellow  oat  grass,  sweet  vernal  grass,  peas,  orchard 
grass — seven  days. 

The  volume-weight  is  obtained  by  weighing  in  the  air  the  contents 
of  a  standard  measure,  such  as.  the  bushel,  or  the  hectolitre.  This 
weight  is  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  shape  and  size  of  the  seeds  which 
permit  them  to  form  a  more  or  less  compact  mass,  and  also  by  the 


266  PASTORAL   AND    AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

shape  of  the  vessel.  Small  sized,  or  withered  seeds  give  a  smaller  vol- 
ume weight  than  large  plump  seeds.  The  number  of  seeds  in  any  measure 
increases  with  the  volume  weight  and  the  weight  of  the  individual  seeds 
decreases  in  like  ratio.  With  cereal  Seeds  the  absolute  weight  of  the 
individual  seeds  invariably  increases  with  the  volume  weight.  Chemical 
analyses  show  that  the  higher  the  volume-weight  ,the  better  the  edible 
quality  of  cereal,  or  starchy  seed.  Hence  it  is  important  to  determine  the 
volume -weight. 

To  estimate  the  real,  or  agricultural  worth  of  a  seed  sample,  we  must 
combine  the  purity  and  viability  percentages,  thus: 
Viability  X  Purity  =  Qr 

100 

Means  of  Detecting  Source  of  Seeds.— It  is  important  to  have  a 
reliable  means  of  detecting  the  source  of  supply  of  seeds.     Wittmack  was 


FIG.  119. — Wild  carrot,  c,  natural  size;  a,  b,  front  and  edge  views.  (Taken  from 
Seed  Testing  its  Uses  and  Methods,  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bull. 
108,  1894.) 

thje  first  scientific  man  to  interest  himself  in  this  question,  and  in  1873,  he 
recognized  a  red  clover  as  American  owing  to  the  presence  in  it  of  seeds  of 
Ambrosia.  Sometimes  the  appearance  of  the  seed  itself — the  metallic 
lustre  of  its  coat' — proclaims  its  origin.  Stebler  calls  those  weed  seeds 
which  indicate  the  origin  of  the  seed  source  indicators.  Other  seeds  not  as 
reliable,  but  still  helpful,  he  calls  companion  seeds.  Of  the  weed  seeds 
found  in  red  clover  a  few  such  as  ragweed,  spurge,  field  dodder,  Practed 
and  black-seeded  plantains,  spiny  sida,  lady's  thumb  and  vervain  indicate 
the  American  origin  of  the  seed  in  other  words  are  source  indicators.  On 
the  other  hand  clover  dodder  (Fig.  120),  scentless  chamomile,  wild  mad- 
der and  ox  tongue  indicate  imported  seed.  Stebler  recognizes  the  follow- 
ing seed  supplying  districts  of  the  world  and  the  source^  indicators. 

i.  South  European  (South  France,  Italy,  Spain).     CoroniUa  scorpi- 
oides  and  Ammi  majus. 


AGRICULTURAL   SEEDS,    SELECTION   AND    TESTING  267 

2.  West  European  (Great  Britain,  N.  France,  Netherlands).     Alope- 
curus  agrestis,  Carum  petroselinum. 

3.  North  American  (United  States  and  Canada).    Panicum  capillare, 
Cuscuta  arvensis,  Rudbeckia  hirta,  Ambrosia  artemisa folia. 


FIG.  120. — Mature  dodder  (Cuscuta)  on  an  alfalfa  stem.  (After  Mairs,  T.  I.: 
Some  Soiling  Crops  for  Pennsylvania,  Bull.  109,  Pennsylvania  State  College  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  1911,  p.  13.) 

4.  Australian  (Australia  and  New  Zealand.)     Agrostis  Fosteri,  Dan- 
thonia  semi-annularis. 

5.  Asiatic  (Syria,  Turkestan).     Silene  dichotoma,  Saponaria  vaccaria, 
Glaucium  corniculatum,  Berteroa  incana,  Erysimum  orientate,  Hibiscus  tri- 
onum,  Anthemis  austriaca,  Carduus  acantkoides. 


268  PASTORAL    AND    AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 

6.  South  American  (Chili.  Argentine  Republic)  CeratoMoa  australis, 
Medicago  denticulata,  M.  maculata,  Melilotus  parwflora,  Ammi  visnaga, 
and  Cuscuta  racemosa. 

Number  of  Seeds  in  Pound  and  Bushel.- — The  number  of  weed  seeds 
sown  with  agricultural  seeds  is  astonishing.  In  one  sample,  that  con- 
tained in  all  only  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent,  of  spurious  seeds,  the  number  of 
weed  seeds  per  pound  averaged  990.  In  a  bushel  of  60  pounds  there  were, 
therefore,  more  than  59,000  weed  seeds.  A  sample  of  clover  seed  offered 
on  the  Chicago  market  in  1898  for  two  cents  per  pound  contained  338,000 
weed  seeds  per  pound,  or  more  than  20,000.000  per  bushel.  Hence,  we 
are  led  to  observe  that  low-priced  seed  may  be  expensive,  when  we  con- 
sider, that  it  costs  just  as  much  to  prepare  the  soil  for  poor  seeds,  as  for 
good  seeds,  and  if  the  seeds  are  poor  the  amount  of  labor  later  exerted  in 
the  extermination  of  the  weeds  more  than  offsets  the  initial  expense  of 
the  seeds.  Hence  the  farmer  should  grow  the  best  seed  that  he  can  obtain 
on  the  market,  even  if  the  price  is  high. 

Slowly,  but  none  the  less  surely,  America  is  becoming  the  recognized 
center  of  the  world's  seed-growing  industry.  The  need,  therefore,  of 
men  scientifically  trained  in  all  phases  of  this  industry  is  important  for 
the  future  development  of  the  seed  industry.  Whoever  contributes  to 
the  education  of  these  men  contributes  to  the  welfare  of  the  state. 

,  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

AMERICAN  AGRICULTURIST:  Testing  Seeds.     Gardeners'  Chronicle,  new  ser.,  viii,  268, 

September  i,  1877. 
BEAL,  W.  J.:  Seeds  of  Michigan  Weeds.     Bulletin  260,  Michigan  State  Agricultural 

College   Experiment   Station,   March,    1910;   Seed  Dispersal.     Boston,  Ginn   & 

Company,  1900. 
BRENCHLEY,  WINIFRED  E.:  Buried  Weed  Seeds.     Journal  Agricultural  Science,  ix, 

1, 1-31, 1918;  reviewin  Journal  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  xliv,  164,  May,  1919. 
BROWN,  EDGAR:  Alfalfa  Seed.     Farmers'  Bulletin  194,  1904. 
BROWN,  EDGAR  and  HILLMAN,  F.  H.:  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities.     Farmers' 

Bulletin  260,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1906. 
CLARK,  GEORGE  H.:  The  Seed  Control  Act  (Canadian).     Bulletin  No.  S.i,  Revised 

Edition,  Dominion  of  Canada,  Department  of  Agriculture,  July,  1907. 
DAILEY,  ARTHUR  T.:  Seed  Separation  and  Germination.     Facts  for  Farmers,  iii,  No.  9, 

May,  1913. 
DUVEL,  J.  W.  T.:  The  Vitality  and  Germination  of  Seeds.     Bulletin  58,  Bureau  of 

Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1904. 
GUPPY,   H.    B.:   Studies  in  Seeds  and  Fruits.     An  Investigation  with  the  Balance. 

London,  Williams  and  Norgate,  1912;  Plants,  Seeds  and  Currents  in  the  West 

Indies  and  Azores.    London,  Williams  and  Norgate,  1917. 


AGRICULTURAL   SEEDS,    SELECTION   AND   TESTING  269 

HAKZ,  DR.  C.  D.:  Landwirthschaftliche  Samenkunde  Handbuch  fur  Botaniker,  Land- 
wirthe,  Gartner,  Droguisten,  Hygieniker.  Berlin,  Verlag  von  Paul  Parey,  1885. 

HICKS,  GILBERT  H.  and  KEY,  SOTHORON:  Additional  Notes  on  Seed  Testing.  Year- 
book, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1897,  441-452. 

HILLMAN,  F.  H.:  Dodder  in  Relation  to  Farm  Seeds.  Farmers'  Bulletin  306,  1907; 
The  Adulteration  of  Forage-plant  Seeds.  Farmers'  Bulletin  382,  1909. 

HUGHES,  H.  D.:  The  Germination  Test  of  Seed  Corn.  Bulletin  135,  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  February, 
1913- 

JENKINS,  E.  H.,  HICKS,  G.  H.  and  OTHERS:  Rules  and  Apparatus  for  Seed  Testing. 
Circular  34,  Office  of  the  Experiment  Station,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1897. 

JOHNSON,  T.  and  HENSMAN,  Miss  R.:  Agricultural  Seeds  and  Their  Weed  Impurities: 
A  Source  of  Ireland's  Alien  Flora.  The  Scientific  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society,  xii,  new  ser.,  446,  462  with  plates,  July,  1910. 

KRUHM,  ADOLPH:  Growing  Seed  for  the  World.  The  Garden  Magazine,  December, 
1916,  164-16', ;  The  Romance  of  the  Seeds.  The  World's  Work,  April,  1917. 

LUBBOCK,  SIR  JOHN:  A  Contribution  to  our  Knowledge  of  Seedlings  (two  volumes). 
New  York,  D.  Apple  ton  and  Company,  1892. 

MCCARTHY,  GERALD:  Seed  Testing,  Its  Uses  and  Methods.  Bulletin  108,  North 
Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1894. 

XOBBE,  DR.  FRIEDRICH:  Handbuch  der  Samenkunde  Physiologische  Statitische 
Untersuchungen  iiber  der  wirthschaftlichen  Gebrauchswerth  der  land  und  forst- 
wirthschaftlichen,  sowie  gartnerischen  Saatwaaren.  Berlin,  Verlag  von  Wie- 
gandt,  Hempel  &  Parey,  1876. 

PIETERS,  A.  J.:  The  Farmer's  Interest  in  Good  Seed.  Farmers'  Bulletin  in,  1900; 
Red  Clover  Seed.  Farmers'  Bulletin  123,  1901;  Seed  Production  and  Seed  Sav- 
ing. Yearbook,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1896,  207-216. 

ROBBINS,  W.  W. :  Colorado  Seed  Laboratory.  Bulletin,  Vol.  i,  No.  i,  The  Colorado  Seed 
Act,  Sept.,  1917;  No.  2,  First  Annual  Report,  December,  1917;  No.  3,  Second 
Annual  Report,  December,  1918;  No.  4,  Colorado  Pure  Seed  Law,  August,  1919. 

SASSCER,  E.  R.  and  HAWKINS,  Lou  A.:  A  Method  of  Fumigating  Seed.  Bulletin  186, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 

SCHMITZ,  NICOLAS:  The  Germination  Test  of  Seed  Corn.  Extension  Circular  71, 
The  Pennsylvania  State  College,  School  of  Agriculture  and  Experiment  Station, 
February,  1918. 

STONE,  GEORGE  E.:  Seed  Separation  and  Germination.  Bulletin  121,  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  February,  1908. 

TILLMAN,  O.  J.:  Purity  and  Germination  of  Agricultural  and  Vegetable  Seeds  Sold  in 
North  Carolina.  The  Bulletin  of  the  North  Carolina  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Division  of  Botany,  Vol.  32,  No.  10,  October,  1911. 

TRUE,  A.  C.:  Rules  and  Apparatus  for  Seed  Testing.  Circular  34  (revised),  Office 
of  the  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1906. 

WEED,  CLARENCE  MOORES:  Seed-travellers.  Studies  of  the  Methods  of  Dispersal  of 
Common  Seeds.  Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.,  1899. 


270  PASTORAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

LABORATORY  WORK 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — It  is  desirable,  although  probably  not  feasible  on  account 
of  lack  of  time,  for  the  students  to  make  a  collection  of  weed  seeds.  These  can  be 
kept  in  vials  in  the  manner  indicated  in  the  laboratory  work  at  the  end  of  Chapter  12. 
A  collection  of  forty-eight  weed  seeds,  or  twice  that  number,  if  two  boxes  of  vials  are 
used  instead  of  one,  will  be  very  helpful  in  the  identification  of  doubtful  weed  seeds. 

The  botanical  laboratory,  where  agricultural  botany  is  taught,  might  form  an 
agricultural  collection,  such  as  is  outlined  in  a  bulletin  issued  by  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture, Agricultural  Extension  Service,  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Missouri, 
November,  1915.  An  outline  of  the  suggestions  in  Project  Announcement  No.  2  is 
given  herewith. 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLECTIONS  FOR  LABORATORIES 

Farm  Crops  Laboratory  Material 

Mounted  Laboratory  Material 
Sets 

I.  Types  of  wheat.     Spikes  and  threshed  grain. 
II.  Varietal  types  of  common  wheat. 

III.  Types  of  oats.     Panicles  and  threshed  grain. 

IV.  Types  of  barley.     Spikes  and  threshed  grain. 
V.  Types  of  clovers.     Head  and  threshed  grains. 

VI.  Sorghum  types. 

VII.  Economic  grasses.     Spikes  and  panicles  with  threshed  seeds. 
VIII.  Botanical  types  of  corn. 
IX.  Varieties  and  types  of  millets. 
X.  Miscellaneous  cereals. 

XI.  Seeds  of  miscellaneous  forage,  root,  fiber  and  other  plants. 
XII.  Pathological  specimens  of  loose  smut  of  wheat,  covered  smut  of    wheat,  loose 

smut  of  barley,  smuts  of  corn  and  oats,  etc. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  should  be  accumulated  book  illustrations,  photo- 
graphs, score  cards  and  maps  showing  distribution  and  economic  importance  of  the 
various  crop  plants. 

The  teacher  should  have  on  hand  several  pounds  of  commercial  seeds  purchased 
in  the  open  market,  such  as  alfalfa,  red  clover,  wheat,  rye  and  oats.  These  are  accumu- 
lated for  use  in  the  following  exercises. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

i.  Small  measured  quantities,  either  by  volume,  or  by  weight,  of  some  seed  sample 
(as  above)  should  be  distributed  to  every  student  in  the  class,  who  should  make  an 
analysis  of  the  samples  distributed.  The  good  seeds  should  be  placed  in  one  pile, 
the  weed  seeds  in  another,  and  the  impurities  in  a  third.  An  estimate  should  then  be 
made  of  the  percentages  of  purity  of  each  of  the  samples. 


AGRICULTURAL    SEEDS,    SELECTION    AND    TESTING  271 

2.  The  weed  seeds,  separated  as  above,  should  then  be  identified  by  the  use  of 
illustrations  and  comparison  with  the  laboratory  collection  of  weed  seeds. 

3.  Seeds,  which  germinate  quickly  (3-4  days),  should  be  used  for  the  purpose  of 
testing  the  viability  of  seeds  and  learning  the  technique  of  the  test.     The  simplest  ar- 
rangement is  to  use  the  blotter  pads  previously  described  by  placing  alternately  wet  pads 
and  layers  of  seeds  between  two  deep  soup  dishes,  one  of  them  being  in  verted  over  the 
other  (fig.  118).     The  rag  doll  seed  tester  may  also  be  used.     Secure  muslin  cloth  of  a 
good  quality  and  tear  into  strips  from  eight  to  ten  inches  wide  and  three  to  five  feet 
long.     Where  these  strips  are  to  be  used  very  much,  the  edges  should  be  hemmed  to 
prevent  raveling.     Squares  can  then  be  marked  with  a  heavy  pencil  on  the  cloth,  so 
that  they  have  a  three  inch  side.     The  seeds  are  then  placed  on  the  square  and  the 
cloth  rolled  up,  so  as  to  inclose  the  seeds.     The  whole  roll  is  then  placed  in  water  fpr 
a  few  hours  and  then  removed  and  kept  moist  until  germination  begins.     In  both  of 
these  methods  of  testing  the  germination  of  seeds,  if  one  hundred  seeds  are  used,  the 
number  that  germinate  within  the  specified  time  will  give  the  exact  percentage" of 
viability  without  calculation. 


GLOSSARY  AND  INDEX 


No  attempt  is  made  to  form  a  complete  glossary  of  terms,  but  only  those  words 
are  included  which  might  gjve  trouble  to  the  reader  of  the  book. 


Aaronson,  Aaron  and  discovery  of  wild 

wheat,  165 
Abdomen,  the  large  inferior  cavity  of  the 

trunk  of  the  human  bod}'. 
Abortives,  12 
Abrin,  19 

Abrus  precatorius,  185 
Abutilon  Theophrasti,  244 
Acacia,  184;  arabica,  185;  senna,  185 
Accumulation  of  nitrogen,  ,218 
Achene,  a  one-seeded,  seed-like  fruit. 
Aconin,  59 
Aconite,  230;  as  a  poisonous  plant,  58; 

poisoning  symptoms,  58 
Aconitin,  59;  test  for,  69 
Aconitum   columbianum   as   a   poisonous 

plant,  58;  Xapellus,  cases  of  poisoning 

by,  58 

Adobe,  clay  or  soil  from  which  sun-dried 

bricks  are  made;  sun-dried  bricks. 
Adrenalin,  16 
Adsuki  bean,  207 
Aegagropilae,  3 

Aerobic,  requiring  oxygen  in  order  to  live. 
Aeschynomene  spinulosa.  184 
Aestivation,  the  arrangement  of  parts  in 

the  bud  of  the  flowers. 
Agave  americana,   230;  rigida  var.   sisa- 

lana,  230;  sisalana,  230 
Age  of  plant,  influence  of,  13 
Agricultural  collections,  270 
Agricultural  seeds,  general  considerations, 

259 

Agropyron  repens,  254 
Agrostemma  Githago  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

57 

13  273 


Agrostemin,  58 

Agrostis  alba,  136;  var.  stolonifera,  136; 
var.  vulgaris,  136;  canina,  137;  Fos- 
teri,  267 

Aino  millet,  147 

Ala,  a  wing  petal  in  the  papilionaceous 
flower. 

Albuminous,  pertaining  to  a  seed  with  the 
reserve  food  outside  of  the  embryo. 

Aleppo  grass,  145 

Alfalfa,  184,  187;  and  Varro,  187;  com- 
position of,  191;  description  of,  188; 
flowers,  tripping  of,  189;  harvesting, 
190;  Grimm,  189;  number  of  cuttings, 
188;  original  home  of,  187;  planting, 
190;  seed,  impurities  of,  262;  seeding, 
187;  soil,  190;  treatment,  190;  use 
as  a  feed,  190;  varieties  of,  189 

Alkaloids,  18 

Alligator  pear,  236 

Allium  ascalonicum,  227;  cepa,  226;  fis- 
tulosum,  227;  porrum,  227;  sativum, 
226;  schcenoprasum,  227 

Almond,  232 

Alopecurus  agrestis,   267;  pratensis,   138 

Alsike  clover,  193 

Alternation  of  nitrogen-storing  and  ni- 
trogen-consuming plants,  237 

Amanita  muscaria,  33;  phalloides,  35 

Amanita-toxin,  36 

Amaranthus  retroflexus,  255 

Amaurotic,  relating  to  the  condition  of 
partial  or  total  loss  of  vision. 

Ambrosia  artemisiwfolia  and  hay-fever, 
112,  243,  267;  psilostachya  and  hay- 
fever,  112;  trifida  and  hay-fever,  112 


274 


INDEX 


America  as  center  of  world's  seed  indus- 
try, 268 

Ammi  majus;  266  visnaga,  268 

Ammophila  arenaria,  142 

Amount  of  poison,  variation  in,  14 

Amygdalin,  67;  hydrolysis  of,  19 

Amylose,  any  one  of  a  certain  group  of 
the  carbohydrates  including  cellu- 
lose, dextrin,  glycogen  and  starch. 

Anaerobic,  capable  of  living  without  free 
oxygen  (air). 

Ananas  sativa,  235 

Anemonic  acid,  59 

Anemonin,  59 

Andromedotoxin,  95 

Andropogon  muricatus,  use  of  roots  of, 
129;  Sorghum,  236;  poisoning  by, 
45 

Annona  squamosa,    235 

Annulus,  a  ring  usually  found  on  the  stalk 
of  toadstools. 

Anthemis  austriaca,  267;  cotula,  255 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  140;  and  hay- 
fever,  112 

Anthyllis  vulneraria,  212 

Antibody,  a  substance  which  counter- 
acts, or  neutralizes,  a  poisonous  body 
or  toxin. 

Antibodies,  21 

Antidote,  an  agent  counteracting  or  pre- 
venting the  action  of  a  poison. 

Antitoxin,  a  substance  formed  in  the  body 
of  animals  which  neutralizes  the 
toxins,  or  poisons,  formed  in  these 
organisms. 

Antitoxins,  21 

Apium  graveolens,  225,  229 

Apocarpous,  that  condition  of  the  pistil 
of  the  flower  in  which  the  carpels  are 
distinct. 

Aposepalous,  distinct  sepals. 

Apocynum  cannabinum,  254 

Apparatus  for  seed  testing,  260 

Appetite,  depraved,  15 

Apple,  231 

Apricot,  232 


Arachis,  184;  hypogaea,  205 

Aragallus    (Oxytropis)    Lambertii    as    a 

poisonous  plant,  74 
Aralia  cordata,  227 

Arbutin  in  leaves  of  ericaceous  plants,  97 
Arctium  lappa,  254 
Areca  catechu,  237 
Arracacha,  226;  esculenta,  226 
Artemisia     biennis,     244;     frigida,    150; 

heterophylla  and  hay- fever,  112 
Artichoke,  213,  230 
Artocarpus  incisa,  235 
Arundinaria  nitida,  227 
Asclepias  cornuti,  254;  verticillata  as  a 

poisonous  plant,  99 
Ash  pumpkin,  232 
Asparagus,  227 
Asparagus  bean,  200 
Asparagus  officinalis,  227 
Aspergillpsis,  2 
Aspergillus  fumigatus,  i ;  pathogenicity  of, 

i 
Asphyxia,  a  condition  of  the  body  often 

resulting  in  death  where  the  blood  is 

not  properly  supplied  with  oxygen. 
Asphyxiation,  51 
Asthenia,    absence    or    general    loss    of 

strength. 
Asthenics,  n 
Astragalus  diphysus  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

75;  gummifer,  185;  mollissimus  as  a 

poisonous  plant,  74 
Ataxia,   the  incoordination  of  muscular 

action. 

Atropin,  n;  forms  of,  16 
Audibert,  M.,  mentioned,  80 
Australian  salt  bush,  212 
Available  energy,  121 
^Avena  fatua,  162;  nuda,  162;  orientalis, 

162;  sativa,  162 
Avivectent,  said  of  fruits  and  seeds  which 

are  distributed  by  being  voided  by 

birds  in  their  feces. 

Awn,  the  bristle  or  beard  attached  to  cer- 
tain chaffy  scales  beneath  the  flowers 

of  grasses. 


INDEX 


275 


Bacillus  radicicola,  activity  of,  220 

Bacteriolysins,  21 

Bacteria  of  nitrification,  218 

Bacteroids,  220 

Ballast,  material  carried  on  vessels  to  bal- 
ance and  steady  them  in  the  sea-way.  ' 

Balls  of  cactus  spines,  6 

Balsam  of  Peru,  185 

Balsam  of  Tolu,  184 

Bamboo,  227 

Bamboos,  uses  of,  129 

Bambusa  arundinacea,  227;  vulgaris,  227 

Banana,  235 

Banner  oats,  162 

Baptisia  tinctoria,  185 

Barley-,  128,  168;  cultivation  of,  169;  de- 
scription of,  1 68;  production,  155; 
rotation,  170;  seed  impurities  of, 
263;  six-rowed,  168;  two-rowed,  168 

Beal,  W.  J.,  experiments  with  seeds,  247; 
experiments  on  vitality  of  buried 
seeds,  255 

Bean,  hyacinth,  212 

Beans,  184 

Bear-grass,  213 

Beet,  225 

Beggar- weed,  212 

Belladonna,  99,  230 

Benincasa  cerifera,  232 

Berberin,  65 

Beri-beri,  a  dropsical  complaint  with 
other  accompaniments  common  in 
Ceylon,  India  and  Japan. 

Beri-beri,  46 

Bermuda  grass,  129,  144;  origin  of,  144; 
seeding  of,  145 

Berseem,  212 

Berteroa  incana,  267 

Beta  vulgaris,  225 

Betain,  19 

Betel,  237 

Bezoar,  etymology  of,  4 

Bindweed,  254 

Bird's  foot  trefoil,  212 

Bittersweet  as  a  poisonous  plant,  101 

Blackberry,  233 


Black  grama,  148 

Black   locust,    184,    185;   as   a   poisonous 

plant,  70 

Blotter  test  for  seeds,  271 
Blueberry,  234 
Bluegrass,  Canadian,  135;  Kentucky,  133; 

seed  impurities,  263 
Blue-joint  grass,  139 
Blue  loco  weed,  75 
Bluestem  wheat,  167 
Boehm,  studies  of,  89 
Boehmeria  nivea,  228 
Boerner,  Dr.  F.,  mentioned,  93 
Bonavist,  212 
Bouteloua  aristoides,   148;  curtipendula, 

148;  eriopoda,  148;  gracilis,  147;  hir- 

suta,  148;  oligostachya,  147;  Parryi, 

148 

Bowstring  hemp,  230 
Box.  as  a  poisonous  plant,  79 
Bradley,  Helen,  poisoned  by  Jimson  weed, 

100 

Bract,  the  subtending  leaf  of  a  flower. 
Bracteate,  having  bracts. 
Branching  of  grass  stems,  133 
Brassica  campestris,  225;  chinensis,  229; 

napus,  225;  nigra,  255;  oleracea  var. 

botrytis,  230;  var.  capitata,  229;  var. 

caulo-rapa,  227;  var.  gemmifera,  229; 

var.  viridis,  229 
Bread  fruit,  235 
Bread  wheat,  165 

Breath  of  milk-sick  animals  described,  105 
Broad  bean,  184,  207 
Broccoli,  230 
Brome  grass,  smooth,  139 
Bromus  inermis,  139;  tectorum  injury  by, 

2 

Bronchomycosis,  an  affection  of  the  bron- 
chial tubes  due  to  fungi,  i 
Broom  as  a  poisonous  plant,  70 
Broom  corn,  128,  236 
Broom  corn  millet,  147 
Brownlow,  Mr.  C.  V.,  mentioned,  vii 
Brussels  sprouts,  229 
Buchloe  dactyloides,  148 


276 


INDEX 


Buchu,  230 

Buckwheat,  cultivation  of,  175;  descrip- 
tion of,  174;  yield  of,  175 

Buffalo  grass,  148,  149;  analysis  of,  149 

Bugloss,  viper's,  249 

Bulb  crops,  226 

Bulbilis  dactyloides,  148 

Bulliform  cells  of  grass  leaves,  125 

Bunch  grasses,  124 

Bur  clover,  187,  207 

Burdock,  254 

Burma  bean  as  a  poisonous  plant,  71 

Burnet,  213 

Burns,  Prof.  Geo.  P.  quoted,  244 

Buttercup  as  a  poisonous  plant.  59 

Buxin,  79 

Buxus  sempervirens  as  a  poisonous  plant, 
79 

Cabbage,  229 

Cactus  spine  balls,  6 

Caesalpinioideae,  flowers  of,  183 

Calamagrostis  canadensis,  139 

Calico-bush  as  a  poisonous  shrub,  93 

California  bur  clover,  207 

Callus,  hardened  and  thickened  skin. 

Calorie,  120 

Caltha  palustris,  as  a  poisonous  plant,  64 

Calyx,  the  outer  whorl  of  floral  em  elopes. 

Camas,  death,  47 

Camellia  Thea,  229 

Campanulate,  bell-shaped. 

Canada  potato,  225 

Canada  thistle,  252 

Canadian  bluegrass,  135 

Canadian  field  pea,  199 

Cane,  seed  impurities  of,  263 

Cannabis  sativa,  228 

Cantaloupe,  232 

Caper  spurge,  79 

Capitulum,  183 

Capsella  bursa-pastoris,  248,  255 

Capsicum  annum,  233 

Capsule,  a  dry,  splitting  seed  vessel  de- 
veloped from  a  pistil  with  united 
carpels. 


Carbohydrate,  an  organic  compound  con- 
taining carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
the  two  latter  being  in  the  proportion 
to  form  water. 

Carbohydrates  in  corn,  160 

Cardoon  in  Argentina,  246 

Carduus  acanthoides,  267 

Carica  papaya,  235 

Carob,  184 

Carpel,  a  leaf  which  represents  one  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  pistil. 

Carpet  weed,  243 

Carrot,  225;  wild,  249,  254 

Carum  petroselinum,  267 

Caryopsis,  the  fruit  of  cereals,  or  grasses. 

Cases  of  poisoning,  seasonal  distribution 
of,  14 

Cassava,  226 

Cassia  fistula,  185 

Castilloa  elastica,  228 

Castor  oil,  237;  medicinal  uses  of,  80; 
plant  as  poisonous,  80 

Cauliflower,  230 

Cause  of  hay-fever,  1 1 1 

Celandine  as  a  poisonous  plant,  65 

Celeriac,  225 

Celery,  229 

Cenchrus  tribuloides,  injury  by,  2 

Cerastium  arvense,  246 

Ceratochloa  australis,  268 

Ceratonia,  184 

Cereals,  American,  155 

Cevadin,  51 

Chaetochloa  italica,  236 

Character  of  organ,  influence  of,  13 

Chelerythrin,  65 

Chelidonium  majus  as  a  poisonous  plant. 
65 

Chemical  nature  of  poisoning,  16 

Chenopodium  quinoa,  237 

Cherry,  sour,  232;  sweet,  232 

Chestnut,  V.  K.,  work  quoted,  34,  58 

Chestnut  and  Wilcox  mentioned,  72,  90, 
101 

Chia-peh-ho,  226 

Chick-pea,  211 


INDEX 


277 


Chickweed,  246,  252 

Chicory,  introduction  of,  246 

Chinese  primrose  producing  skin  erup- 
tions, 95 

Chinese  sugar-millet,  128 

Chives,  227 

Chodat,  R.,  quoted,  165 

Chongras,  55 

Cholin,  19,  34;  graphic  formula  of,  17 

Chop  suey,  207 

•Chorizema,  181;  ilicifolia  for  class  study, 
185 

Chorogi,  226 

Chrosperma  muscsetoxicum,  as  a  poison- 
ous plant,  51 

Chrysanthemum  cinerariaefolium,  231; 
leucanthemum  pinnatifidum,  251; 
pyrethrum,  231;  roseum,  231 

Chufa,  226 

Ciboule,  227 

Cicer  arietinum,  211 

Cichorium  endivium,  229 

Cicuta  maculata,  87;  species  of,  as  poison- 
ous plants,  88;  vagans,  87;  virosa.  87 

Cicutoxin,  89 

Ciliate,  provided  with  a  fringe  of  fine 
hairs,  or  bristles  (cilia). 

Cinchona,  228;  calisaya,  228 

Cirrhiferous,  181 

Cirrhosis,  the  increase  and  thickening  of 
the  connective  tissue  of  an  organ,  as 
of  the  liver. 

Cirsium  arvense,  252 

Citron,  235 

Citrullus  vulgaris,  232 

Citrus  aurantifolia,  235;  aurantium,  235; 
grandis,  235;  limonium,  235;  medica, 
235;  nobilis,  235;  sinensis,  235 

Classification  of  poisonous  fungi,  37; 
of  poisons,  Bernhard  H.  Smith's,  10; 
of  poisons,  Blyth's,  9;  of  poisons, 
Kobert's. 

Claviceps  microcephala,  30;  paspali,  30; 
purpurea,  28 

Climate,  influence  of,  in  formation  of 
poisons,  13 


Clonic,  pertaining  to  convulsive  and 
spasmodic  states  of  muscles  in  which 
contractions  and  relaxations  occur 
alternately  and  involuntarily. 

Clover  hair  balls,  4 

Clovers,  184 

Club  wheat,  165 

Coca,  230 

Cocklebur,  243 

Cocoa,  236 

Cocce,  226 

Coconut,  236 

Cocos  nucifera,  236 

Coefficient  of  digestion,  119 

Coffea  arabica,  236 

Coffee,  236 

Collard,  229 

Colchicum  autumnale  as  a  poisonous 
plant,  52 

Colchin,  52 

Coleosporium  solidaginis,  31;  description 

of,  33 
Collections,  agricultural  for  laboratories, 

270 

Collections  of  seeds,  153 
Colocasia  antiquorum  var.  esculenta,  226 
Coma,  deep  and  prolonged  sleep  of  an 

abnormal  kind. 

Comatose,  in  the  state  of  coma. 
Comfrey  prickly,  213 
Common  ragweed  and  hay-fever,  112 
Companion  seeds,  266 
Complete,  applied  to  a  flower  with  all 

of  the  floral  circles  present. 
Concentrates,  118 
Concord  grape,  234 
Conhydrin,  90 
Conicein,  90 
Conidiophores,  8 
Coniin,  90 
Conium  maculatum  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

90 

Convallamarin,  52 
Convallaria  majalis  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

52 
Convallarin,  52 


278 


INDEX 


Convolvulus  arvensis,  254;  sepium,  254 

Convulsives,  9,  n 

Coqk,  O.  F.,  and  wild  wheat,  105 

Copaiba,  185 

Copaiba  oblongifolia,  185;  officinalis,  185 

Copaifera,  184 

Copaiva  balsam,  184 

Copal,  184 

Corchorus  capsularis,  228;  olitorius,  228 

Coriam>Ttin,  89 

Corn,  155;  cultivation  of,  161;  flakes,  160; 
of  hybrid  origin,  155;  oil,  160; 

Corn  cockle  as  a  poisonous  plant,  57; 
rotation,  161;  sowing,  160 

Corn  poppy,  66 

Corolla,  the  second  usually  highly  colored 
whorl  of  the  flower. 

Coronilla  scorpioides,  266 

Corsa.  Mr.  William  P.,  hair  ball  from,  4 

Corymb,  a  flat-topped,  indefinite  flower 
cluster. 

Coryza,  a  catarrhal  affection  of  the  nasal 
passages  and  nearby  sinuses. 

Cotton,  236 

Cotyledon,  a  leaf  of  the  embryo;  a  seed- 
leaf. 

Couch  grass,  128 

Coville,  Dr.  F.  V.,  work  of,  4 

Cowpea,  184;  description  of,  200;  rota- 
tions, 201;  utility  of,  201;  varieties 
of,  201 

Cox,  work  of,  on  tobaccos,  14 

Crab  grass,  129,  252 

Cranberry,  234 

Crawford,  Dr.  Albert  C.,  work  of,  78 

Crimson  clover,  194;  hair  balls  of,  5; 
treatment  of,  194;  uses  of,  195 

Crito,   mentioned,   91 

Crop  rotations,  223 

Crook's  estimate  of  loss  by  sewage,  219 

Crotalaria  juncea,  184;  sagittalis,  as  a 
poisonous  plant,  79 

Crotin,  19 

Crowberry,  55 

Crown  weeds,  254 

Cucumis  melo,  232 


Cucurbita  maxima,  232;  pepo,  232 
Cultivation,  influence  of  inthe  formation  of 

poisons,  14 

Cultivation  of  corn,  160,  161 
Culm,  123 
Cumarin,  141 

Cunningham,  Dr.  A.  E.,  mentioned,  109 
Curled  dock,  254 
Currant,  233;  black,  233 
Cuscuta  arvensis,  267;  racemosa,  268 
Custard-apple,  235 
Cyamopsis  tetragonoloba,  212 
Cyanogenesis,  the  origin  of  prussic  acid 

from  a  glucoside. 
Cyanosis,   a  bluish  discoloration  of  the 

skin    through   the   non-oxidation    of 

the  blood. 
Cyclamin,  20 
Cydonia  oblonga,  232 
Cynara  cardunculus,  246;  scolymus,  230 
Cynodon  dactylon,  144 
Cyperus  esculentus.  226 
Cypripedium  hirsutum,   as  a  poisonous 

plant,  52 
Cytisin,  71 
Cytisus  canariensis,  185;  scoparius  as  a 

poisonous  plant,  70 

Dactylis  glomerata,  137 

Daisy  fleabane,  243 

Daisy,  ox-eye,  251 

Dalbergia  latifolia,  184 

Dalmatian  insect  powder,  231 

Dandelion,  254 

Danthonia  semi-annularis,  267 

Darnel,  46,  142 

Dasheen,  226,  229 

Dasylirion  texanum,  213;  Wheeleri,  213 

Date,  233 

Datura  Stramonium,  100;  Tatula,  100 

Daucus  carota,  249,  254 

Dawson,  Dr.  Charles  F.,  report  of  hair 

balls,  6 

Dead  nettle,  252 
Death  camas,  47 
Death  cup,  35 


INDEX 


279 


Death  of  Socrates,  described,  90-91 

De*Candolle,  experiments  of  on  seeds,  255 

Decumbent,  spreading  on  the  ground,  the 
apex  tending  to  rise,  said  of  stems. 

Decurrent,  running  down  as  wings,  or 
ridges  on  the  stem,  as  in  some  leaves. 

Deliriants,  9,  n 

Delphinin,  61 

Delphinium,  species  of,  as  poisonous 
plants,  60 

Delphinoidin,*  61 

Delphisin,  61 

Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  .nentioned, 
i54 

Dentate,  toqthed. 

Depraved  appetite,  15 

Depressants,  n 

Dermatitis,  an  extensive  group  of  skin 
inflammations  characterized  by  red- 
ness, itching  and  frequently  watery 
pustules. 

Desensitizing  for  poison  ivy,  83 

Desmodium  gyrans,  182 

Desmodium  tortuosum,  184,  212 

Deubler,  Dr.  D.  S.,  mentioned,  94 

Dewberry,  233 

Diadelphous  applied  to  stamens  which 
are  united  by  their  filaments  into 
two  distinct  groups. 

Dicotyledons  as  poisonous  plants,  55 

Dicotyledonous,  having  two  cotyledons, 
or  embryonic  seed  leaves. 

Digestion,  118 

Digestibility  of  feeds,  119 

Digitalis,  230 

Dioscious,  the  condition  in  which  the  male 
(staminate)  and  female  (pistillate) 
flowers  are  borne  on  two  distinct 
plants  of  the  same  species. 

Dioscorea  alata,  226 

Dioscorides  and  plane  tree,  6 

Diospyros  kaki,  233 

Diospyros  virginiana,  233 

Disk-flower,  the  central  tubular  flower  of 
the  head  in  the  sunflower  family. 

Distichy  in  grasses,  125 


Distinct,  applied  to  parts  of  the  same 
circle  in  the  flower  which  are  not 
united  with  each  other. 

Dolichos  Jablab,  212 

Doctor-gum,  82 

Drench,  a  draught  of  medicine  in  veteri- 
nary practice. 

Dropsy,  an  abnormal  collection  of  fluid 
in  a  cavity  or  part  of  the  body. 

Drug  plants  of  the  Leguminosae,  185 

Drupaceous,  applied  to  fruits  with  a  stone, 
as  in  the  peach. 

Dulcamin,  102 

Dura,  128 

Durian,  235 

Durio,  236 

Durio  zibethinus,  235 

Durum  wheat,  165 

Dye  plants  of  Leguminosae,  184 

Dyspnoea,  breathing  which  is  difficult,  or 
labored,  arising  from  various  causes. 

Dyssodia  papposa,  244 

Earth  apple,  225 

Ebracteate,  without  bract,  or  leaf,  that 

subtends  the  flower. 
Echinochloa  frumentacea,  236 
Echium  vulgare,  249 
Eddo,  226 
Egg  plant,  233 
Egyptian  clover,  187 
Ehrlich,  theory  of,  20 
Eichornia  crassipes,  246 
Einkorn,  165 
Eleusine  indica,  246 
Emaciation,  leanness;  loss  of  fat  and  flesh 

of  the  body. 
Embelia  acid,  95 
Emergency  feeds,  213 
Emery,  Dr.  Z.  P.,  observations  of,  70 
Emmer,  165 
Emollient,  a  substance  applied  externally 

to  soften  the  skin,  or  given  internally 

to  soothe  an  inflamed  surface. 
Encouragement  of  leguminous  crops,  223 
Endive,  229 


280 


INDEX 


Endoconidium  temulentum,  47 

Energy,  available,  121 

Energy  of  food,  120 

English  ivy  as  a  poisonous  plant,  87 

Ensilage,  117 

Epigastric,  relating  to  the  upper  middle 

part  of  the  abdominal  surface. 
Equisetin,  40 
Equisetosis,  39 
Equisetum  arvense,  39 
Erepsin,  118 

Ergot,  28-31;  chemical  nature  of,  29 
Ergotism,  30;  gangrenous,  30-31 
Ericaceae,  as  poisonous  plants,  92 
Erigeron  canadensis,  243 
Eructation,  belching,  42 
Erysimum  orientale,  267 
Erythrina  suberosa,  184 
Erythrocyte,  a  red  blood-corpuscle. 
Erythroxylum  coca,  230 
Eschanzier,    Dr.   Francis,   of  San  Luis, 

Potosi,  Mexico,  6 
Esparto  grass,  129 
Estivation,  the  arrangement  of  parts  in 

the  flower  bud. 
Eucalyptus,  230 
Euchlaena  mexicana,  155 
Eupatorium  ageratoides,  as  a  poisonous 

plant,  104;  urticaefolium,  104 
Euphorbia  Lathyris  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

79;  marginata,  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

79;  species  of,  as  poisonous  plants, 

79;  splendens  and  its  latex,  85 
European  hemlock,  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

87 

Evening  primrose,  248 
Ewart,  experiments  with  seeds,  255 
Exalbuminous,  with  reserve  food  stored 

inside  of  the  seed  leaves  (cotyledons) 

in  the  embryo  of  seeds. 
Exstipulate,   without   stipules,   or   basal 

outgrowths  of  the  petiole  of  the  leaf. 
Extravaginal  branching,  123 

Fagopyrum  esculentum,  174 
Fascicle,  a  close  cluster;  a  bundle. 


Fat  in  corn,  160 

Feces,    dung,   or   the   excretions   of   the 

bowels. 

Feeding  et  seq.,  117 
Feeding  standard,  121 
Feeds,  117  et  seq. 
Feeds,  nature  of,  118 
Fenugreek,  185,  212 
Fermentations,  secondary,  15 
Fescue  grasses,  i4o;.meadow,  140;  sheep's, 

140 
Festuca  elatior,  140;  ovina,  i4o;pratensis, 

140 

Fiber  plants  of  Leguminosae,  184 
Ficus  carica,  233;  elastica,  228 
Field  pea,  199;  Canadian,  199;  cultivated, 

199;  description  of,  199;  harvesting, 

199;  utility,  200 
Field  sorrel,  246 
Fife  wheat,  167 
Fig,  233 

Flamboyant  tree,  185 
Flax,  228,  236;  New  Zealand,  230 
Florets,  104 

Florida  beggar- weed,  212 
Florida  clover,  187 
Flowers  for  perfume,  230 
Fly  agaric,  33 
Fly  poison,  33 
Fodder,  definition  of,  177 
Fodder  plants  of  the  Leguminosae,  184 
Food  energy,  120 
Forage    plants,    definition,    117;  grasses; 

131;  of  the  Leguminosae,  187;    mis- 
cellaneous, 212 
Fox  grape,  234 
Foxtail,  meadow,  138 
Foxtail  millet,  147 
Fragaria  chiloensis,  233;  vesca,  233;vir- 

giniana,  233 
Fruit  crops,  231 
Fruit  of  Leguminosae,  183 
Fruits,  tropical,  235 
Fun,  Harold,  recovery  of,  88 
Fungi,  poisonous,  28-39 
Furze,  212 


INDEX 


28l 


Gadd,  mentioned,  89 

Galen  and  plane  tree  hairs,  6 

Galega  officinalis,  212 

Gamosepalous,  sepals  of  calyx  united. 

Garlic,  226 

Garden  nightshade  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

101 

Garden  plants  of  the  Leguminosae,  185 
Garget,  55 
•Gastro-enteritis,  inflammation  of  bowels 

and  stomach  at  the  same  time. 
Genista,  184,  185 
German  millet,  147 
Germination  tests,  apparatus  for,  260* 
Gillam  and  case  of  poisoned  sheep,  101 
Ginger,  226 
Girasole,  225 
Githagin,  58 

Glaucium  corniculatum,  267 
Glaucous,  covered  with  a  bloom  so  as  to 

appear  whitened. 
Glucose  from  corn,  160 
Glucosides,  19;  transformation,  13 
Glume,  one  of  the  two  lower  scales  of  a 

grass  spikelet. 
Glumes,  125 
Gluten  from  corn,  160 
Glycine  hispida,  201 
Glycyrrhiza  glabra,  185 
Goats  and  calico-bush,  94 
Goat's  rue,  212 
Golden-rod  rust,  31 
Gooseberry,  233 
Goose-grass,  246 
Gossypium  barbadense,  236;  herbaceum, 

236 
Grama,    black,    148;    grass,    147,    149; 

hairy,     148;    rough,     148;    side-oat, 

148;  six  weeks',  147 
Grape,  234 
Grape  fruit,  235 
Grass  forage  plants,  131 
Grass  habit,  122;  pollen,  128;  stems,  122; 

structure,  122-128 
Grasse  in  France,  mentioned,  230 
Grazing  of  short-grass  vegetation,  150 


Great  laurel  as  a  poisonous  plant,  95 

Great  ragweed  and  hay-fever,  na 

Green  manure,  223 

Green  potato  tubers,  poisonous,  102 

Grimm  alfalfa,  189 

Guar,  212 

Guayule,  228 

Guinea  grass,   146;  for  tropical  forage, 

147 

Gum  arabic,  184,  185 
Gum  kino,  184 

Gum  plants  of  Leguminosae,  184 
Gum  Senegal,  185 
Gutierrezia  sarothrae,  150 
Gymnospermous  poisonous  plants,  42 
Gynophore,    a    stalk    raising    the    pistil 

above  the  stamens. 

Habit  of  grasses,  122 

Haecker,  work  on  feeding,  121 

Haematoxylon  campechianum.  184 

Hair  balls  of  crimson  clover.  5 

Hairs  of  plane  trees,  injury  by,  6 

Hairy  grama,  148 

Hairy  vetch,  210 

Hallucination,  a  high  degree  of  subjective 
morbid  sensation  dependent  upon  a 
morbid  stimulation  of  the  cortical 
sensory  centers. 

Hansom,  Timothy,  mentioned,  131 

Haptophore,  the  anchoring  group  of  the 
toxin  molecule  which  is  stable  and 
possesses  the  power  of  binding. 

Haricot  bean,  206 

Harris'  work  on  toxins,  19 

Harshberger,  Dr.,  A.,  and  children  poi- 
soned by  Jimson  weed,  100 

Harz,  Dr.  C.  D.,  work  of,  259 

Hassock  grasses,  124 

Haulm,  123 

Hawkweed,  orange,  244 

Hay-fever  plants,  in;  remedies,  113; 
vaccine,  113,  114 

Hedera  helix  as  a  poisonous  plant,  87 

Hederin,  87 

Hedysarum  coronarium,  212 


282 


INDEX 


Helenium  autumnale,  102;  tenuifolium 
and  bitter  milk,  104 

Helianthus  annuus,  213;  tuberosus,  213, 
225 

Hellebore,  white,  51 

Helvellic  acid,  20,  37 

Hemagglutination,  27 

Hemerocallis  flava,  230 

Hemoglobinuria,  the  presence  of  hemo- 
globin or  red-blood  coloring  matter  in 
the  urine. 

Hemolysins,  21 

Hemolysis,  the  destruction  of  the  red- 
blood  corpuscles,  20 

Hemp,  228 

Herbe  sardonique,  59 

Herbicide,  chemical,  256 

Herd,  John,  mentioned,  131 

Herd's  grass,  131,  136 

Hermaphrodite,  applied  to  the  flower 
where  the  stamens  and  pistil  are  in 
the  same  flower. 

Heteropogon  contortus  injury  by,  2 

Hevea  brasiliensis,  228 

Hibiscus  esculentus,  234;  trionum,  267 

Hieracium  aurantiacum,  244 

History  of  seed  testing,  259 

Hoe  cake,  160 

Hominy,  160 

Holcus  odoratus  and  hay-fever,  112 

Holy  grass,  129 

Honey  poisoned  by  nectar  of  mountain- 
laurel,  94 

Hordeum  distichon,  168;  jubatum,  injury 
by,  3;  spontaneum,  168;  vulgare,  168 

Horse  bean,  207 

Horse  nettle,  243,  250 

Horse  radish,  225 

Horse-tail,  39 

Hosackia  americana,  212 

Huang-hua-ts'ai,  230 

Human  food,  Leguminosae,  as,  184 

Hungarian  millet,  147 

Hunt,  Harris  F.,  work  on  cereals,  180 

Hyacinth  bean,  212 

Hyaline,  transparent,  or  only  partly  so. 


Hydrocyanic  acid,  67 

Hydrolysis,  the  decomposition  of  water 

during  a  chemical  reaction. 
Hymenaea,  184 
Hyoscin,  101 
Hyoscyamin,  101 
Hypericum   perforatum   as    a    poisonous 

plant,  86 

Hypericum  red,  87 
Hypocotyl,  that  part  of  the  axis  of  the 

plant  embryo  immediately  below  the 

seed  leaves,  or  cotyledons. 

Icterus,  a  rare  disease  of  the  liver  with  a 
wasting   of   the  liver  substance  as- 
sociated with  jaundice. 
Ilex  paraguayensis,  229 
Immunization,  the  process  by  which  an 
animal  is  rendered    insusceptible  to 
disease. 

Immunization,   theory  of,  20-21 

Imparipinnate,  pinnately  compound  with 
an  unpaired  terminal  leaflet. 

Imperfect,  a  flower  without  one  of  the 
essential  organs,  either  stamens,  or 
pistil. 

Impurities,  poisonous  plants  as,  15 

Incised,  said  of  leaves  the  margin  of 
which  is  deeply  cut. 

Incomplete,  without  one  of  the  floral 
whorls. 

Indefinite,  numerous,  applied  to  stamens; 
having  indeterminate  growth,  as 
applied  to  flower  clusters. 

Indehiscent,  not  splitting  open. 

Indian  corn,  155;  and  hay-fever,  112 

Indian  hemp,  254 

Indicators  of  sources  of  seeds,  266 

Indigo,  185;  wild,  185 

Indigofera,  184;  tinctoria,  185 

Indurated,  hardened. 

Inebriants,  n 

Infarct,  an  obstruction  or  plug. 

Inflorescence,  the  flower  cluster. 

Inflorescence  of  grasses,  125;  of  Legumi- 
nosae, 183 


INDEX 


283 


Influence  of  age  of  plant,  13 

Intermittent,  occurring  at  intervals. 

Intoxication,  the  resulting  state  from  an 
overdose  of  poison. 

Intravaginal  branching,  124 

Insect  powders,  231 

Insertion,  the  place  where  the  floral 
parts  are  attached. 

Involucre,  the  collection  of  bracts  which 
surround  branches  of  the  inflorescence, 
or  clusters  of  flowers,  as  in  the  sun- 
flower family. 

Involute,  rolled  inwards  from  the  edges. 

Ipomoea  batatas,  225 

Irregular,  said  of  flowers  in  which  the 
parts  are  of  unequal  shapes  and  sizes. 

Irritant  poisons,  9 

Irritants,  12 

Italian  rye  grass,  141 

Jamestown  weed,  100 

Japan  clover,  187,  208 

Jasmine,  230 

Java  bean,  71 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  225 

Jervin,  51 

Jimson  weed,  100 

Johnson  grass,  145 

Jones,  Jesse,  Co.,  mentioned,  154 

Juglans  californica  var.  Hindsii  pollen  as 

a  cause  of  hay-fever,  114 
June   grass,    131;    adaptability   of,    135; 

seeding  of,  136 
Juniper,  43 

Juniperus  communis,  43 
Jute,  228 

Kaffir,  128,  236 

Kale,  229 

Kalmia  angustifolia,  92;  latifolia,  93 

Kentucky  blue-grass,   129,   133;  a  weed 

in  Xew  Zealand,  136 
Kino  gum,  184 
Koernicke  quoted,  168 
Kohl-rabi,  227 
Kolmer,    Dr.    John    A.,    mentioned,    vii; 

experiments  with  phytotoxins,  27 


Kowliang,  128,  236 

Kraemer,  Henry,  methods^  quoted,  97 

Krastov  wheat,  167 

Kubanka  wheat,  167 

Kudzu,  212 

Kus-kus,  129 

Lachnanthes  tinctoria,  the  pigment  in,  52 

Lacquer  as  a  poisonous  material,  81 

Lactuca  sativa,  229 

Ladino  clover,  196 

Lady  slipper  orchid,  as  a  poisonous  plant, 
52 

Lamb  kill,  92 

Lanceolate,  lance-shape. 

Larkspurs  as  poisonous  plants,  60 

Latex  in  Euphorbia  splendens,  85 

Lathyrus  odoratus,  185 

Lathyrus  sativus,  212 

Lathyrus  tetragonolobus,  212 

Leaf  crops,  229 

Leaves  of  grasses,  125;  of  Leguminosae,  181 

Lecheguila,  213 

Leek,  227 

Legislation  about  weeds,  257 

Legume,  183 

Leguminosae,  characteristics  of,  181;  roots 
of,  181 

Leguminous  leaves,  181;  crops  as  green 
manure,  223;  crops,  encouragement 
of,  223;  forage  plants,  187-217; 
stems,  1 8 1 

Lemma,  the  outer  floral  scale  immediately 
beneath  the  grass  flower. 

Lemma  of  grasses,  126 

Lemon,  235 

Lens,  184 

Lentil,  184 

Lepidium  virginicum,  255 

Lespedeza  striata,  208 

Lethal,  deadly,  usually  applied  to  doses. 

Lettuce,  229 

Ligule,  the  membranous  outgrowth  be- 
tween the  blade  and  sheath  in  grass 
leaves;  rain-guard. 

Ligule  of  grasses,  125 


284 


INDEX 


Ligustrin,  96 

Ligustrum  vulgare  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

96 

Lilium  Sargentiae,  230 
Lily  of  the  valley  as  a  poisonous  plant,  52 
Lima  bean,  206 
Lime,  235 

Linaria  vulgaris,  250 
Linnaeus,  opinions  quoted,  192 
Linum  usitatissimum,  228,  236 
Liquorice,  185 
Locality,  influence  of,  15 
Locoism,  cause  of.  78 
Loco  disease,  symptoms  of,  78 
Locoweed,  blue,  75;  stemless,  as  a  poi- 
sonous plant,  74;  wooly,  74;  in  general 

76 

Locust,  black,  184,  185 
Lodging  of  grass  stems,  124 
Lodicules  of  grasses,  126 
Logwood,  184 
Loliin,  46 
Lolium  italicum,  141;  multiflorum,   141; 

perenne,  141;  temulentum,  46 
Loment,  183 
Lotus  corniculatus,  212 
Lupines  as  poisonous  plants,  71 
Lupinidin,  72 
Lupinin,  72 
Lupinus    cyaneus,    72;    leucophyllus,  72; 

luteus,    as    a    poisonous    plant,    72; 

perennis,    185;   sericeus,    72;   species 

of,  71 

Lycopersicum  esculentum,  232 
Lyonia  mariana,  95 

Meadow  foxtail,  138;  growth  of,  139;  hay 
of,  139;  number  of  seeds  per  pound, 
138 

Meadow  saffron  a£  a  poisonous  plant,  52 
Mears,  B.  W.  &  Sons,  letter  from,  5 
Medicago,  184;  arabica,  187,  207;  denti- 
culata,   268;  falcata,   189;  hispidula 
denticulata,  207;  lupulina,  187,  212; 
sativa,  187;  maculata,  268 
Medicinal  leaves,  230  \ 


Medulla  oblongata,   the  upper  enlarged 

part  of  the  spinal  cord. 
Meehan,  Thomas,  mentioned,  96 
Melilotus,  184;  alba,  196,  254;  parviflora, 

268 

Melon,  232 

Mendel,  work  on  toxins,  19 
Mesquite,  184 
Mexican  clover,  213 
MacDougal,    D.   T.,    and   poisoning   by 

Cypripedium,  53 
Macule,  53  c   • " 

Maize,  cultivation  of,    160;    description 

of,   156;  embryo  of,   158;  grain  of, 

157;  origin  of,  155;  poisoning  by,  45; 

production,  155;  soils,  160 
Mangifera  indica,  235 
Mango,  235 

Manihot  utilissima,  226 
Manila  hemp,  230 
Marigold,  fetid,  244 
Marram  grass,  129, 142;  as  a  sand  binder, 

143 

Marsh,  Dr.  C.  Dwight,  mentioned,  vii 
Marshall,  Dr.  C.  J.,  and  poisoned  goats, 

94 

Marsh  marigold  as  a  poisonous  plant,  64 
Mat6,  229 

Matricaria  suaveolens,  244 
May-apple  as  a  poisonous  plant,  64 
May's  work  on  chemistry  of  synthetic 

drugs,  1 6 
Metabolism,  119 
Microbe-seeding  of  soils,  224 
Milk  sickness,   cause   of,    109;   in   man, 

105 

Milkweed,  254 
Millet,  128,  236;  Aino,  147;  broom-corn, 

147,    236;    fox-tail,    147,    236;    Ger- 
man, 147;  Hungarian,  147;  pearl,  236; 

seed    impurities    of,   263;    Siberian, 

i47 

Milo,  128,  236 

Mimosa,  flowers  of,  183;  pudica,  182 
Mimosoideae,  flowers  of,  183 
Mollugo  verticillata,  243 


INDEX 


285 


Monadelphous,  stamens  united  by  their 

filaments  into  one  cluster. 
Monkey  and  mountain-laurel,  94 
Monocotyledonous,  with  one  cotyledon, 

or  seed-leaf  in  the  embryo  plant. 
Monocotyledons  as  poisonous  plants,  45- 

53 
Monoecious,  with  male  (staminate)  and 

female    (pistillate)    flowers    distinct 

from  each  other,  but  on  the  same 

plant. 

Mooting  in  grass  stems,  124 
Morning  glory,  254 
Morphin,  67;  and   Cicuta-poisoning,  90; 

test  for,  69 

Morus  alba,  233;  nigra,  233;  rubra,  233 
Mortaux  vaches,  59 
Moth  bean,  207 

Mountain-laurel  as  a  poisonous  plant,  93 
Mount  Hermon  and  wild  wheat,  165 
Mucuna  pruriens  as  a  dye  plant,   184; 

utilis,  187,  209 
Mulberry,  233 
Mulhollen,  Chester,  death  of,  88;  Willard, 

recovery  of,  88 
Mullein,  254 
Mung  bean,  207 

Musa  sapientum,  235;  textilis,  230 
Muscadine  grape,  234 
Muscarin,  19,  34 

Mycelium,  a  collective  name  for  the  vege- 
tative hyphae  or  threads  of  a  fungus. 
Myco-bacterium  rubiacearum,  222 

Naked  wheats,  165  C 

Names,  various,  for  milk  sickness  in  cattle, 

105 

Narbonne  vetch,  210 
Narcotic  poisons,  9 
Narcotics,  10 
Nerianthin,  99 
Neriin,  99 

Nerium  oleander  as  a  poisonous  plant,  98 
Nettle,  Holse,  250 
Neurin,  graphic  formula  of,  17 
New  mown  hay  perfume,  141 


New  Zealand  flax,  230 

New  Zealand  spinach,  229 

Nicotiana  tabacum,  230 

Nitrate  bacteria,  218 

Nitrification,  218 

Nitrogen  accumulation,  218 

Nitrogen,  amount  fixed,  222 

Nitrobacter,  218 

Nitrogen-consuming  plants,  classification 

of,  224 

Nitrogen,  loss  of,  219 
Nitrogen-storing  plants,  220 
Nitrosococcus,  218 
Nitrosomonas,  218 
Nobbe,  Dr.  Friedrich,  work  of,  259 
Nodules  of  Leguminosae,  181 
Nodules  on  leaves  of  Rubiaceae,  222 
Nodules,  types  of  leguminous,  220-222 
Nolina,  213;  erumpens,  213;  microcarpa, 

213 

Norton,  J.  B.  S.,  observations  of,  30 
Nutrient  ratio  of  corn,  160 
Nutritive  ratios,  119,  120 
Nutritive  value  of  maize,  160 


Oats,    128;   cultivation   and   yield,    164; 

description  of,  162;  production,  155; 

quality  of,  164;  rotations,  164;  seed 

impurities  of,  263 
(Edema,  swelling,  especially  the  effusion 

of  serous  fluid  into  certain  tissues  of 

the  animal  body. 
Oenanthotoxin,  89 
Oenothera  biennis,  248,  255 
Oil  from  corn,  160 
Okra,  234 
Olea  europaea,  232 
Oleander,    as    a    poisonous    plant,    98; 

skewers  poisonous,  98 
Olive,  232 
Onion,  226 

Onobrychis,  184;  viciaefolia,  187,  208 
Opuntia,  212;  Engelmanni,  spines  of,  6 
Orange,  230;  king,  235;  sour,  235;  sweet 

235 


286 


INDEX 


Orchard  grass,  137;  cultivation  of,  138; 

seeding  of,  137 

Oregon  hemlock  as  a  poisonous  plant,  87 
Ornithopus,  184;  sativus,  208 
Osborne  and  Voorhees,  166 
Osborne,  work  of,  on  toxins,  19 
Otomycosis,  an  affection  of  the  ear  due  to 

the  attack  of  a  fungus,  i 
Ovary  of  Leguminosae,  183 
Ox-eye  daisy,  251 


Paddy,  174 

Paigya,  71 

Palea  of  grasses,  126 

Palet  of  grasses,  126 

Pammel,  L.  H.,  mention  of  book  on  poi- 
sonous plants,  10 

Pampas  grass,  129 

Panama  rubber,  228 

Pancreas,  a  gland  lying  across  the  pos- 
terior wall  of  the  abdomen  secreting 
a  fluid  for  the  digestion  of  proteids, 
fats  and  carbohydrates. 

Panicle,  an  open  and  branched  raceme,  or 
flower  cluster. 

Panicle  oats,  162 

Panicum  capillare,  267;  maximum,  146; 
miliaceum,  147,  236 

Papaver  dubium,  66;  Rhoeas,  66;  somni- 
ferum,  66;  species  of,  as  poisonous 
plants,  66 

Papaw,  235 

Paper  from  grasses,  129 

Papilionaceous,  butterfly-like,  applied  to 
a  corolla  such  as  the  pea: with  stan- 
dard, wings  and  keel. 

Papilionoideae,  flowers  of,  183 

Pappus,  the  downy  hairs  crowning  the 
ovary  and  achenes  of  the  Composite. 

Paraplegia,  paralysis  of  the  lower 
extremities. 

Parietal,  attached  to  the  inner  walls  of 
the  ovary,  said  of  ovules. 

Paripinnate,  a  compound  pinnate  leaf 
with  a  terminal  pair  of  leaflets. 


Paroxysms,  the  periodic  crisis  in  the  prog- 
ress of  disease;  a  sudden  attack  of 
pain  or  convulsion. 

Parsley,  229 

Parsnip,  225 

Parthenium  argentatum,  228 

Pastinaca  sativa,  225 

Pasturage,  117 

Pasture,  117 

Pasture  thistle,  254 

Pavetta  Zimmermanniana,  222 

Peanut,  184;  cultivation  of,  205;  nutri- 
tive value  of,  206;  seeding  of.  205; 
varieties,  205 

Pear,  231 

Pearl  millet,  236 

Pearson,  Dr.  Leonard,  mentioned,  30 

Peas,  184 

Pea,  square  pod,  212 

Peach,  232 

Pe-byangale,  71 

Peduncle,  a  flower-stalk.  ' 

Pe-gya,  71 

Peh-ts'ai,  229 

Pellagra,  46 

Bennisetum  glaucum,  236 

Pepper,  233 

Pepsin,  119 

Perennate,  to  reproduce  vegetatively,  so 
as  to  live  perennially. 

Perennial  rye  grass,  141;  adaptation  of, 
141;  seeds  per  pound,  142;  sowing  of, 
141 

Perfect,  said  of  flowers  which  have  the 
*  essential  organs,  viz.,  stamens  and 
pistil. 

Perfume  flowers,  230 

Pericarp,  the  wall  of  the  fruit  developed 
from  a  single  pistil. 

Perigynous,  the  insertion  of  parts  on  the 
rim  of  the  cup-like  receptacle  which 
is  either  free  from  the  ovary,  or 
attached  to  it  halfway  uj. 

Peritoneum,  the  serous  membrane  lining 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  and  en- 
veloping the  contained  viscera. 


INDEX 


Persea  gratissima,  236 

Persian  insect  powder,  231 

Persimmon,  233 

Petiolate,     having     a     petiole,    or     leaf 

stalk. 

Petroselinum  hortense,  229 
Pfaff,  Dr.  Franz,  work  of,  82 
Phallin,  19,  20,  36 
Pharmacology,  41 ;  work  on,  69 
Phaseolunatin,  71 
Phaseolus,  184;  aconitifolius,  207;  acuti- 

folius,    207;   angularis,    207;   aureus, 

207;   calcaratus,   207;  lunatus,   206; 

as  a  poisonous  plant,  71;  multiflorus, 

207;  mungo,  207;  vulgaris,  206 
Phleum  pratense,  131 
Phcenix  dactylifera,  233 
Phormium  tenax,  230 
Phyllotaxy,  the  arrangement  of  leaves  on 

the  stem. 

Physostigma  venenosum,  185 
Phytobezoars,  3 
Phytolaccin,  56 
Phytolaccotoxin,  57 
Phytotoxins,  19 
Picropodophyllin,  65 
Pictou  cattle-disease  in  Canada,  no;  in 

New  Zealand,  no 
Pigweed,  2.52 
Pilae  marinae,  4 
Pilocarpin  administered,  100 
Pine-apple,  235 
Pine-apple  weed,  244 
Pinnatifid,   pinnately  cleft,   said  of   the 

margins  of  leaves. 
Pistil,   the  central  female  organ  of  the 

flower,  consisting  of  carpels. 
Pistillate,  of  or  pertaining  to  the  pistil. 
Pisum,  184 

Pisum  sativum  var.  arvense,  199 
Pita,  230 

Placentation,  the  attachment  of  the  ovules 
or  seeds  to  the  inner  wall,  or  central 
column  of  the  ovary,  or  fruit  derived 
therefrom. 
Plane  trees,  injury  by  leaf  hairs  of,  6 


Plantago  lanceolata,  213,  254;  as  a  rem- 
edy for  poison  ivy,  82 
Plantain,  235 
Plum,  232 
Plumose,   plume-like;   feather-like,   beset 

with  hairs  like  a  brush. 
Pneumomycosis,  2 
Poa  compressa,  135;  pratensis,  133 
Pod,  183 
Podophyllin,  65 
Podophyllotoxin,  65 
Podophyllum    peltatum   as   a   poisonous 

plant,  64 
Pohl,  work  of,  89 
Poinciana  regia,  185 

Poison  dogwood,  81;  elder,  81;  hemlock, 
90;  ivy,  80,  254;  oak,  81;  sumach,  81 
Poisoning  and  weather,  14;  by  Amanita 
phalloides,     symptoms    of,    36;    by 
muscarin,  symptoms  of,  34 
Poisonous  fungi,  classification  of,  37 
Poisonous  plants  as  impurities,  15 
Poisons  acting  on  the  brain,  10;  acting  on 
the  heart,  n;  on- the  spinal  cord,  n; 
classification    of,    9;    conditions    in- 
fluencing the  formation  of,   12;  sea- 
sonal variation  of,  13 
Poke,  55 

Pollantin,  114  / 

Pollen  in  grasses,  128 
Pollination,  the  act  by  which  the  pollen 
is  transferred  from  anthers  to  stigma 
of  the  same,  or  another  flower. 
Pollinosis,  in 
Polish  wheat,  165 
Polygonum  hydropiper,  255;  sachalinense, 

212 

Pomelo,  235 

Poppies  as  poisonous  plants,  66 
Portulaca  oleracea,  247,  255 
Posidonia  oceanica,  4 
Post-mortem,  an  examination  of  the  body 

after  death;  an  autopsy. 
Post-mortem  of  animals  killed  by  rag- 
wort, in 
Potato,  225;  as  a  poisonous  plant,  102 


288 


INDEX 


Poulard  wheat,  165 

Prickly  comfrey,  231 

Prickly  lettuce.  252 

Prickly  pear,  212 

Primrose,  Chinese,  and  skin  eruptions, 
95;  evening,  248 

Prince's  feather,  244 

Pringle,  Cyrus  G.,  aunt  of,  mentioned,  244 

Privet,  as  a  poisonous  plant,  96 

Proso,  236 

Prosopis  juliflora,  184 

Protandry,  that  state  of  the  flower  in 
which  the  anthers  shed  their  pollen 
before  the  stigma  is  ready  to  receive 
it. 

Protopin,  65 

Protoveratridin,  51 

Protoveratrin,  51 

Provence  cane,  129 

Prunus  amygdalus,  232;  armeniaca,  232; 
avium,  232;  cerasus,  232;  persica, 
232;  serotina  as  a  poisonous  plant, 
67;  species  of,  as  poisonous  plants,  67 

Prussic  acid,  poisoning  by,  45 

Pseudomonas  radicicola,  181;  activity  of, 
220 

Psychotria  bacteriophila,  222 

Pterocarpus,  184 

Ptomaines,  18 

Pubescent,  hairy  with  fine,  soft  down,  or 
hairs. 

Puccinia  suaveolens,  as  a  rust  of  Canada 
thistle,  256 

Pueblo  corn,  159 

Pueraria  thunbergiana,  212 

Pulvinus,  the  swelling  at  the  base  of  the 
leaves  and  leaflets  of  leguminous 
plants  by  which  motion  is  accom- 
plished. 

Pumpkin,  232 

Pumpkin,  ash,  232 

Purgation,  the  evacuation  of  material 
from  the  bowels  as  a  result  of  the  use 
of  purgatives. 

Purgatives,  12 

Purging  cassia,  185 


Purity  tests,  apparatus  for,  260 

Purple  vetch,  187 

Purslane,  247,  252 

Pustulation,  a  condition  in  which  pustules, 

or  blister-like  vesicles  are  formed. 
Pyrus  communis,  231 
Pyrus  malus,  231 

Quack  grass,  254 
Quince,  232 
Quinoa,  237  . 

Rachilla  of  grasses,  125 

Radicula  armoracia,  225 

Radish,  225 

Rag  doll  seed  tester,  271 

Ragweed,  243,  252 

Ragweeds  and  hay- fever,  112 

Ragwort  as  a  poisonous  plant,  109 

Rain-guard  of  grass  leaves,  125 

Ramie,  228 

Raphanus  sativus,  225 

Ranunculus  acris,  59 ;  bulbosus  as  the  cause 
of  skin  eruptions,  59;  Ficaria,  59 

Raspberry,  233 

Rations,  118 

Ratios,  nutritive,  119,  120 

Rattle-box  as  a  poisonous  plant,  79 

Rattleweed,  75 

Ravenel,  Dr.  M.  P.,  mentioned,  2 

Ray-flowers,  the  flowers  of  a  head  which 
are  marginal,  or  strap-shaped. 

Red  cedar,  43 

Red  clover,  191;  cutting,  192;  description 
of,  191-192;  harvesting,  19.2;  nutrient 
value,  193;  pollination  of,  192;  treat- 
ment, 192;  varieties,  193;  yield  of, 
192 

Red  root  as  a  poisonous  plant,  52 

Red-top,  129,  136;  seed  impurities  of,  263; 
sowing  of,  137;  yield  of,  137 

Redwood,  43 

Reed,  129 

Reeder,  Dr.  W.  C.,  mentioned,  58 

Reflex,  the  return  of  a  nervous  impulse,  or 
a  body. 


INDEX 


289 


Regular,  applied  to  flowers  in  which  the 
parts  of  the  same  whorl  are  alike  in 
shape  and  size. 

Removal  of  animals  to  new  locality,  in- 
fluence of,  15 

Retching,  to  strain  while  vomiting;  to 
suffer  the  spasmodic  muscular  con- 
tractions of  the  stomach  during 
vomiting. 

Rheum  rhaponticum,  229 

Rhizomes  of  grasses,  123 

Rhode  Island  bent  grass,  129,  137 

Rhododendron  calif ornicum,  95;  cataw- 
biense,  95;  cinnabarinum,  95;  maxi- 
mum as  a  poisonous  plant,  95 

Rhubarb,  229 

Rhus  diversiloba,  81;  metopium,  82;  ra- 
dicans,  80,  254;  toxicodendron,  80; 
vernicifera,  as  a  poisonous  plant,  81; 
vernix,  81 

Ribbon-grass,  129 

Ribes  americanum,  233;  aureum,  233; 
grossularia,  233;  nigrum,  233;  oxya- 
acantha,  233; rubrum,  233 

Rib-grass,  213,  254;  as  a  remedy  for  poison 
ivy,  82 

Rice,  128 

Rice  bean,  207 

Rice  cultivation,  173;  description  of,  172; 
distribution,  172;  location  of  lands, 
173;  production,  155;  soils,  172 

Rich  and  Jones,  work  of,  39 

Richardsonia  scabra,  213 

Ricin,  19,  80 

Ricinin,  80 

Ricinus  communis,  237;  as  a  poisonous 
plant,  80 

Ricketts,  Dr.  G.  A.,  and  poisoning  by  cow- 
bane,  88 

Roberts,  Percival,  herd  of  heifers  of,  93 

Robin,  19 

Robinia  pseudacacia,  184,  185;  as  a  poi- 
sonous plant,  70 

Robinson,  Martha,  poisoned  by  Jimson 
weed,  100 

Robitin,  70 
19 


Roch's  classification  of  poisonous  fungi,  37 

Root  crops  described,  225 

Roots  of  grasses,  122 

Rose  bay  as  a  poisonous  plant,  95 

Rosemary,  230 

Roses,  230 

Rosewood,  184 

Rotation  of  corn,  161 

Rotation,  national  system  advocated,  237 

Rotations  of  crops,  223 

Rothamsted  experiments,  224 

Roughage,  118 

Rough  grama,  148 

Rubiaceae,  nodules  on  leaves  of,  222 

Rubber,  228 

Rubus  nigrobaccus,  233;  occidentalis,  233; 

strigosus,  233;  trivialis,  233;  villosus, 

233 

Rudbeckia  hirta,  267 
Rumex  Acetosella,  246,  254;  crispus,  254, 

255 

Russian  thistle,  246,  252 
Russian  vetch,  210 
Rust  of  golden-rod,  31 
Rutabaga,  225 
Rye,  128;  cultivation,  170;  description  of, 

170;  production,  155;  rotation  of,  171 
Rye  grass,  Italian,  141 ;  perennial,  141 


Saccharin,  graphic  formula  of,  17 

Saccharum  officinarum,  227 

Sachalin,  212 

Sainfoin,  184,  187,  208 

Salsify,  226 

Salivation,  the  formation  of  an  excess  of 

spittal,  or  saliva. 
Salsola  kali  var.  tenuifolia,  246 
Salt  bush,  Australian,  212 
Sand  vetch,  210 
Sanguinarin,  65 
Sanguisorba  minor,  213 
Santonin,  89 
Saponaria  vaccaria,  267 
Saponin,  58 
Sapotoxin,  20,  58 


2  go 


INDEX 


Sansevieria  cylindrica,  230 

Scabrous,  roughened. 

Scarlet  runner  bean,  267 

Schamberg,  Dr.  Jay  and  desensiti  zation 

for  poison  ivy,  83 

Schmucker,  Dr.  S.  C.,  mentioned,  101 
Sclerotium,  a  hardened  compact  fungous 

mycelium  associated  with  the  per- 

ennation    of    the   fungus    producing 

it. 

Scopolomin,  101 
Scuppernong  grape,  234 
Scurvy,  a  disease,  which  occurs  on  land 

and    sea,    characterizied    by   spongy 

gums  and  other  symptoms  due   to 

malnutrition,  46 
Seaside  oats,  129,  143 
Seasonal  variation  of  poisons,  13 
Secale    anatolicum,    170;    cereale,     170; 

montanum,  170 
Seed    collections,    153-154;    crops,    236; 

germination,  rate  of,  264-265 
Seeding  of  alfalfa,  187 
Seeds,  agricultural,  259;  comparison,  266; 

number  of  in  pound  and  bushel,  268; 

real  worth  of,  266 
Seed  tester,  rag  doll,  271 
Seed  testing,  apparatus  for,  260;  history 

of,  259;  practical  260-262 
Senecio  Jacobcea  as  a  poisonous  plant,  109 
Senegal  gum,  185 
Senna,  185,  230 
Sensitive  plants,  182 
Septoria  polygonum,  as  a  spot  disease  of 

smartweed,  256 
Sequoia  sempervirens,  43 
Serradella,  184,  208 
Serrate,  the  margin  with  teeth  pointing 

forward  like  a  saw  edge. 
Sesbania  cannabina,  184;  esculenta,  184 
Sessile,  applied  to  leaves  without  a  leaf 

stalk. 

Shaddock,  235 
Shaftal,  212 
Shallot,  227 
Shallu,  128,  236 


Shantz,  H.  L.,  observations  on  short 
grass  vegetation,  149 

Sheaths  of  grass  leaves,  125 

Sheep-laurel,  92 

Sheep  sorrel,  254 

Sheep's  fescue,  140 

Shepherd's  purse,  248,  252 

Short  grass  vegetation,  149;  as  an  indi- 
cator, 149 

Siberian  millet,  147 

Side-oat  grama,  148;  analysis  of,  148 

Silage,  117;  poisoning  by,  45 

Silene  dichotoma,  267 

Silo,  117 

Sisal,  230 

Six  weeks'  grama,  147 

Skewers  of  oleander,  poisonous,  98 

Smilacin,  58 

Smith,  E.  Philip,  recent  work  on  hay- 
fever,  113 

Smooth  brome  grass,  139 

Snakeroot,  white,  as  a  poisonous  plant, 
104 

Sneeze- weed,  102 

Soap  weed,  213 

Socrates  and  the  poison  hemlock,  90; 
death  of,  90 

Soilage,  117 

Soil,  influence  of,  in  formation  of  poisons; 
U 

Soiling  crops,  117 

Soils  for  maize,  160 

Soja,  184 

Solanaceas,  various  poisonous  plants  of, 
9Q 

Solanidin,  102 

Solanin,  20,  102 

Solanum  carolinense,  243,  250;  dulcamara 
as  a  poisonous  plant,  101;  melongena, 
233;  nigrum  as  a  poisonous  plant, 
101;  tuberosum,  225;  as  a  poisonous 
plant,  102 

Sorghum,  128;  poisoning  by.  45;  hale- 
pense,  145 

Sorghums,  236;  seed  impurities  of,  263 

Sorgo,  128,  236 


INDEX 


291 


Sotol,  213 

Source  indicators  of  seeds,  266 

Source  of  seeds,  means  of  detecting,  266 

Sowing  of  corn,  160 

Soy,  184,  201;  as  a  human  food,  204; 
cultivation  of,  203;  description  of, 
201;  harvesting  of,  203;  nutritive 
value  of,  204;  protein  content  of,  203; 
rotations,  203;  uses  of,  204;  varieties 
of,  201 

Spartein,  71 

Spatulate,  broader  at  the  apex  and  nar- 
rowe'd  at  the  base  like  a  spatula. 

Spelt,  165 

Spelt  wheats,  165 

Spergula  sativa,  213 

Spikelet,  the  ultimate  division  of  a  grass 
inflorescence. 

Spikelets  of  grasses,  125 

Spinacia  oleracea,  229 

Spinach,  229;  New  Zealand,  229 

Spratt,  Ethel  R.,  work  on  leguminous 
nodules,  220 

Spurges  as  poisonous  plants,  79 

Spurrey,  213 

Squamula  of  grasses,  126 

Squash,  232 

Squirrel-tail  grass,  injury  by,  3 

Stachys  Sieboldii,  226 

Stagger-bush,  95 

Stagger-grass,  51 

Staggerwort,  109 

Stamen,  the  male  organ  of  the  flower,  its 
anther  producing  the  pollen. 

Staminate,  of  or  pertaining  to  the  stamen. 

Standard  of  feeding,  121 

Staphisagrin,  6/ 

Starch  from  corn,  160 

Stertorous,  pertaining  to  deep  snoring,  or 
laborious  breathing. 

Stebler's  classification  of  source  indica- 
tors, 266 

Stellaria  media,  255 

Stem  crops,  227 

Stemless  locoweed,  74 

Stems  of  grasses,  123 


Stereo-isomerides,  isomeric  bodies  in 
which  the  same  atoms  or  radicals 
in  tri-dimensional  representations 
of  the  molecules  are  in  different 
positions. 

Stinking  Willy  in  Nova  Scotia,  109 

Stipa  capillata,  injury  by,  3 

Stipe,  the  stalk  of  a  pistil;  or  of  a  toad- 
stool. 

Stipulate,  having  stipules  or  outgrowths 
at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk. 

St.  John's  wort  as  a  poisonous  plant,  86 

Stool,  the  evacuation  of  the  bowels; 
feces;  in  grasses,  one  of  the  shoots 
which  arises  in  a  cluster  from  the 
roots. 

Stools  in  grasses,  124 

Stover,  117 

Strawberry,  233 

Study  of  grasses,  methods,  153 

Sublimation,  97 

Sublimable  principles,  97 

Sudan  grass  seed,  impurities  of,  263 

Sugar  cane,  128,  227 

Sulla,  212 

Sunflower,  213 

Susceptibility,  individual,  15;  specific  dif- 
ferences, 14 

Swede  turnip,  225 

Sweet  cherry,  232 

Sweet  clover,  184,  254;  as  a  soil  renovator, 
198;  description  of,  196;  seed  impuri- 
ties of,  264;  nutritive  value.  198 

Sweet  pea,  185 

Sweet  potato,  225 

Sweet  vernal  grass  and  hay-fever,  1 1 2 

Sweet  vernal  grass,  140 

Symmetrical,  having  the  same  number,  or 
a  multiple  of  the  same  number  of 
parts  in  the  three  outer  whorls  of 
the  flower. 

Symphytum  asperrimum,  213 

Symptoms  of  poisoning  by  muscarin,  34 

Syncarpous,  the  condition  of  the  pistil 
where  its  carpels,  or  divisions,  are 
united  together. 


292 


INDEX 


Syncope,  a  fainting,  or  swooning  with  a 
partial,  or  a  complete,  suspension  of 
circulation  and  respiration. 

Syringin,  96  , 

Syringopicrin,  96 


Tamarind,  184 

Tamarindus,  184;  indica,  185 

Tanaka,  M.,  work  of,  70 

Tannia,  226 

Tansy  ragwort,  109 

Taraxacum  officinale,  254 

Tare,  46 

Tares  of  Bible,  142,  210 

Taro,  226 

Tasaki,  B.,  work  of,  70 

Taxin,  42 

Taxus  baccata,  43;  brevifolia,  43; 

canadensis,  42 
Tea,  229 
Teasel,  254 
Telegraph  plant,  182  . 
Tendriliform,  181 
Tenesmus,  pain  of  the  rectum,  or  bladder, 

with  spasmodic  contraction  of  the 

muscles  associated  with  these  parts. 
Teosinte  as  wild  form  of  maize,  155 
Tepiary,  207 

Test  for  seeds,  blotter,  271 
Testa,  1 66 

Tetragonia  expansa,  229 
Theobroma  cacao,  236 
Theory  of  Ehrlich,  20 
Therm,  120 
Thistle,  Canada,  252 
Thistle,  pasture,  254 
Thorax,  the  chest  or  framework  of  bones 

and  soft  tissues  of  the  upper  part  of 

the  body  trunk. 
Thorn  apple,  100 
Thunder- wood,  81 
Thyme,  230 
Tillering  in  cereals,  124 
Tillers  in  grasses,  124 
Timber  trees  of  the  Leguminosae,  184 


Timothy,  131;  number  of  seeds  in  a 
pound,  131;  rotations,  133;  seeding 
of,  133;  seed  impurities  of,  264;  yield, 
133 

Tires  and  slows,  105 

Toad-flax,  yellow,  250 

Tobacco,  230 

Tolu  balsam,  184 

Toluifera,  184;  pereirae,  185 

Tomato,  232 

Tonic,  characterized  by  continuous  ten- 
sion; not  clonic. 

Topinambour,  225 

Touch-me-not  as  a  remedy  for  poison  ivy, 
83 

Toxicodendrol,  82 

Toxins,  vegetable,  19 

Toxophore,  that  part  of  the  poison  mole- 
cule which  carries  the  toxic  group, 
see  diagram  on  page  22. 

Tragacanth,  185 

Tragopogon  porrifolius,  226 

Transformation  of  glucosides,  13 

Trefoil,  bird's  nest,  213;  yellow,  212 

Trelease,  Prof.  William  and  cactus  spine 
balls,  6 

Trembles,  105;  cause  of,  109 

Trifid,  three-cleft. 

Trifolium,  184;  alexandrinum,  187,  212; 
hybridum,  193;  incarnatum,  194; 
pratense,  191;  repens,  195;  var.  Jata, 
196;  suaveolens,  212 

Trigonella  Foeno-groecum,  185,  212 

Trippers  of  alfalfa  flowers,  189 

Tripping  of  alfalfa  flowers,  189 

Triticum  aestivum,  165;  compactum,  165; 
dicoccum,  165;  dicoccum  dicoccoides, 
165;  durum,  165;  hermonis,  165; 
monococcum,  165;  polonicum,  165; 
several  species,  164;  spelta,  165; 
turgidum,  165 

Tropical  fruits,  235 

Truncate,  appearing  as  if  cut  off  at  the 
top. 

Trypsin,  the  enzyme  of  the  pancreatic 
juice  which  digests  proteids. 


INDEX 


293 


Tubercles  of  Leguminosae,  181,  218 

Turkey  wheat,  167 

Turnip,  225 

Tussock  grasses,  124 

Tympanites,  the  condition  known  as 
"drum  belly"  where  there  is  a  dis- 
tehtion  of  the  abdominal  walls 
caused  by  a  paralysis  of  the  muscular 
coat  of  the  intestines  and  their  infla- 
tion with  gas. 

Udo,  227 

Ulex  europaeus,  212 

Ulluco,  226 

Ullucus  tuberosus,  226 

Ultra  violet  light  and  skin  of  poisoned 

animals,  86 
Umbel,  an  indefinite  flower  cluster  where 

the  flower  stalks   all  arise  from  the 

same  point  and  are  surrounded  by  a 

circle  of  bracts.     Such  clusters   are 

generally  flat-topped. 
Uniola  paniculata,  143 
Unpalatable  poisonous  plants,  15 
Unsymmetrical,  the  parts  of  the  flower  are 

of  different  numbers  in  the  different 

whorls. 
Urd,  207 
Uredospore,  the    summer,    or    repeating 

spore  of  the  rusts.     It  is  binucleate 

and  unicellular. 


Vaccine  for  hay-fever,  113,  114 

Vaccinium  corymbosum,  234;  macrocar- 
pon,  234 

Vagus,  the  tenth  cranial  nerve  which 
functions  in  sensation  and  motion. 

Valvate,  applied  to  the  parts  of  the  calyx 
and  corolla  of  a  flower  when  the}' 
meet  by  their  edges  without  over- 
lapping. 

Variation  in  amount  of  poison,  14 

Varro  and  alfalfa,  187 

Varro's  work  on  agriculture  mentioned, 
187 


Vasomotor,  pertaining  to  the  movement 
of  the  non-striped  muscles  of  the 
arterial  system. 

Velvet  bean,  187,  209 

Velvet  leaf,  244 

Venation,  the  framework  of  veins  and  vein- 
lets  of  a  leaf  with  their  arrangement. 

Veratramarin,  51 

Veratrin,  24,  51 

Veratridin,  51 

Veratrum  viride,  as  a  poisonous  plant,  51 

Verbena  hastata,  243;  urticifolia,  243 

Vernal  grass,  sweet,  140 

Vertigo,  giddiness,  dizziness;  the  feeling 
of  lack  of  equilibrium. 

Vervain,  243 

Vetch,  bird,  212;  chickling,  212;  Dakota, 
212;  hairy,  210,  211;  kidney,  212; 
Narbonne,  210;  narrow-leaved,  211; 
purple,  187,  210;  Russian,  210;  sand, 
210;  scarlet,  210 

Vetiver,  129 

Vexillum,  the  posterior  large  petal  of  the 
papilionaceous  flower  which  over- 
laps the  two  lateral  petals,  or  wings; 
the  standard. 

Vicia,  i84;angustifolia,  2ii;atropurpurea, 
187,  210;  cracca,  212;  ervilia,  210; 
faba,  207;  fulgens,  210;  narbonnen- 
sis,  21 1 ;  saliva,  210;  villosa,  210,  211 

Vigna,  184;  catjang,  200;  sesquipedalis, 
200;  sinensis,  200 

Violets,  230 

Viper's  bugloss,  249 

Viscera,  any  organ  inclosed  within  the 
large  cavities  of  the  body. 

Vitamine,  46 

Vitis  Labrusca,  234;  Vinifera,  234 

Volume-weight  of  seeds,  265-266 

Volva,  that  part  of  the  universal  veil, 
which  remains  as  a  cup  at  the  base 
of  the  stipe  of  some  toadstools;  the 
so-called  death-cup. 

Walnut  pollen  and  hay-fever,  114 
Water-melon,  232 


294 


INDEX 


Water  hemlock  as  a  poisonous  plant,  87 

Water  hyacinth  in  Florida,  246 

Weather  and  poisoning,  14 

Weed-killers,  chemical,  256 

Weeds,  absolute,  241;  as  annuals,  252;  as 
biennials,  254;  as  perennials,  254;  as 
winter  annuals,  252;  classification  of, 
252;  crown,  254;  definition  of,  241; 
destruction  of,  255;  distributed  by 
automobiles,  245;  distributed  by 
flying  seeds,  245;  by  trains,  245; 
growth  by  runners,  245;  injurious 
nature  of,  241-243;  introduced  in 
manure,  257;  introduction  and  distri- 
bution, 243;  legislation  on,  257;  lines 
of  travel,  246;  means  of  distribution, 
245;  relative,  241;  repeated  cutting 
of,  255;  seeds  in  Colorado,  list  of, 
262;  smothering  with  paper,  256; 
special  examples,  246;  vitality  of 
buried  seeds,  255 

Welsh  onion,  227 

Wheat,  128,  164;  adaptation  of,  167; 
bread,  165;  cultivation  of,  168;  de- 
scription of,  165;  durum,  165;  Polish, 
165;  production,  155;  poulard,  165; 
rotation  of,  167;  yield  of,  168;  naked, 


\Vhite  hellebore  as  a  poisonous  plant,  51 
White  snakeroot  as  a  poisonous  plant,  104 
Wrhorled  milkweed  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

99 

Wikzemski,  work  of,  89 
Wild  black  cherry  as  a  poisonous  plant, 

67 

W7ild  indigo,  185 
Wild  rice,  128 
Windsor  bean,  207 
Winslow,  Dr.,  quoted,  66 
Wistaria,  181;  sinensis,  185 
Wolff -Lehmann  standards,  121 
Wooly  loco  weed   as  a  poisonous  plant, 

74 
Wormwood,  244 


Xanthosoma  atrovirens,  226 


Yam,  226 

Yautia,  226 

Yeh-peh-ho,  230 

Yellow  clover,  187 

Yew,  42 

Yucca  elata,  213;  glauca,  213 


Whitall,  Tatum  &  Co.,  mentioned,  154 

White  clover,   description   of,    195;   dis-  Zea  mays,  155;  poisoning  by,  45 

tribution  of,  197;  hay,  197;  pasturage,  Zingiber  ofncinale,  226 

197;  rotation  of,  196;  seeding,  197;  Zygadenus    venenosus    as    a    poisonous 
soils,  197;  uses  of,  196  plant,  47 


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UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORMiA 

AT 
LOS  ANGELES 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

A  A      000022987    2 


